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HARPER'S LANGUAGE- SERIES. 



PROGRESSIVE GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH TONGUE: 



BASED ON TEE RESULTS OF MODERN PHILOLOGY. 



By Peof. WILLIAM SWINTON, A.M., 

AUTHOE OF "WORD-ANALYSIS," "WOED-BOOK," " E AMBLES AMONG WOEDS," "CONDENSED 

HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES," " FIEST LESSONS IN OUE COUNTEY'S 

HISTOEY," "CAMPAIGNS OF THE AEMY OF THE POTOMAC/> 

"DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAE," ETC. 




ETYMOLOGY HISTORICALLY TREATED. 

PRACTICAL SYNTAX. 

ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 






i 



NEW YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FKAHKLIN SQUARE. 

1872. 



&1* 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



The present course of English Grammar, forming a part 
of Harper's Language-Series, is embodied in two books : 

1. The "First Lessons in English;" 

2. The " Progressive English Grammar. 1 ' 

The two are not necessarily connected; either may be 
used by itself. The " First Lessons/' however, is designed 
to meet the wants of the lower classes of graded schools, 
while this text-book will connect with the " First Lessons," 
and, at the same time, furnish by itself a complete gram- 
matical course for ungraded and for private schools. 

Learning our mother tongue ought to be the most inter- 
esting of school studies ; and yet, for nearly a century, 
countless numbers of technical grammars, all modeled aft- 
er Lindley Murray, have been, by turns, the object of aver- 
sion to successive generations of school children. This is 
not to be wondered at. The traditional rules of syntax, 
and the time -honored nomenclature of etymology, have 
come down to us a heritage from the elder grammarians, 
who, writing before philology became a science, put forth 
all their strength in a too successful endeavor to subject 
our simple and peculiar English speech to the vassalage of 
I#tin forms. 

The introduction, some thirty years ago, of the method 



IV * PREFACE. 



of Sentential Analysis, devised by the German philologist 
Becker, and adapted to American school use in the meri- 
torious works of Professor Greene and others, marks the 
only considerable innovation, in this country, on the Mur- 
ray system. The new doctrine excited great interest, and 
soon ran into a wide currency. When we consider, how- 
ever, that Analysis is the syntax of English to no greater a 
degree than it is the syntax of any other speech ; that it is, 
in point of fact, general or universal syntax, it is not strange 
that it failed to realize the brilliant results claimed for it 
by its early champions, and that of late it is falling out of 
favor with judicious teachers, who find that Analysis, while 
a curious and interesting study, and not without its value 
as a means of mental discipline, fails to accomplish the pro- 
fessed design of English grammar, which design now is, 
and always has been, to teach " the art of speaking and 
writing the English language with propriety." 

In the mean time, in the results of modern linguis- 
tic study and research, materials have been rapidly accu- 
mulating, from which methods of treatment ought to be 
developed very different from the complications of Anglo- 
Latin syntax on the one hand, and from the abstractions 
of Analysis on the . other. If the present work shall be 
found to possess any merit, that merit will be due to the 
fact that modern philology has made English grammar 
possible by showing us what the English speech really is. 

In this text-book, of the four mediaeval " branches" of 
grammar, two have been lopped off — to wit ^ Orthography 
and Prosody. These do not properly belong to English 
grammar, and, indeed, they came into the grammatical 
horn-books at a period when the awful mysteries of "gram- 
mairie" were ranked with the black arts. This exclusion 



PREFACE. 



leaves for treatment the two proper departments of gram- 
mar — Etymology and Syntax ; to which have been added 
Analysis and Construction, and English Composition. 



In the treatment of Etymology three prominent points 
will be noticed : 

1. A graduated method of unfolding the parts of speech, 
which are shown upon three successive and ascending 
planes. The parts of speech are first taken up and defined 
merely. Then all the parts of speech are again taken up, 
and their subdivisions set forth. Lastly, all the parts of 
speech are taken up for the third time, and their inflections 
(if they possess any) are exhibited. The superiority of this 
plan of gradual approach over the old w T ay of crowding 
every thing in a confused mass of bewildering nomencla- 
ture upon the child must be evident on even a cursory ex- 
amination. 

2. The brief, simple, and practical definitions of the parts 
of speech and of grammatical terms in general. Gramma- 
rians, it is true, have been in the habit of magnifying the 
importance of abstract logical definitions, constructed w T ith 
all the subtlety of the schoolmen. But is it not manifest 
that in an art like grammar the sole end of definition is to 
teach uses ? Now it is believed that the school-boy, by the 
aid of such simple (though, it is true, empirical) definitions 
as Nouns naSie things, Yerbs make statements, will learn 
to detect nouns and verbs much sooner than he possibly 
could, were he ever so cunning in the repetition of wire- 
drawn definitions that may, indeed, be theoretically ex- 
haustive, but that are practically unintelligible. 

3. The historical treatment of English inflections. The 



VI ' PREFACE. 



modern study of Anglo-Saxon has thrown a flood of light 
on the forms and idioms of the English tongue. We ob- 
tain a satisfactory knowledge of our few fragments of 
English inflection only by learning how those inflections 
arose. And here, again, grammarians are chargeable with 
having misapplied a great deal of ingenuity in trying to 
explain d priori (by pure reasoning and logic) facts that 
can be explained solely by the history of our speech. In 
the present text-book the aim has been to introduce the 
more illustrative points of English philology stripped of 
their scientific dress. 

II. 

The treatment of Syntax in this text-book is probably 
what will most challenge attention. 

In this division of the subject a marked departure from 
the old methods was found absolutely indispensable. The 
time-honored twenty-six rules of Murray's Grammar are an 
incongruous assemblage of mixed definitions and abstrac- 
tions, imitated from Latin syntax, and having as their chief 
end to teach grammatical parsing, which is simply grammar 
run to seed. How many a thoughtful teacher has been 
rudely disenchanted by discovering that a boy may glibly 
parse Young's Night Thoughts, or Pollock's Course of Time, 
strictly in accordance with the twenty-six rules, and yet be 
profoundly ignorant of practical English ! 

The author bases his treatment of English syntax on 
the theory that the object of the school study. of grammar 
is to furnish school-boys and school-girls with such an avail- 
able outfit of knowledge in applied syntax as shall give them 
a fair mastery of the use of English in speaking and in 
writing. Accordingly, he found it needful to go through 



PREFACE. Vll 

syntax, and carefully to separate the abstract maxims used 
in disposing of words from those principles that are of prime 
importance, because they may be violated in the actual 
forms of words. This separation is marked by dividing 
the syntax of each part of speech into — 

1. How to dispose of the part of speech. 

2. Its practical syntax. 

Of the latter — Practical Syntax — -the treatment has 
been made quite full, the author feeling that he could not 
conscientiously avoid fairly meeting the numerous difficul- 
ties that arise in writing modern English. At the same 
time,-as the principles are developed inductively, from co- 
pious illustrations very fully explained, it is believed that 
they will find firm lodgment in the intelligence, and, by 
consequence, in the memory of the pupil. 

III. 

A clear system of Sentential Analysis, freed from need- 
less complications and refinements, has been reduced to its 
appropriate place and space in the grammatical course. 
Moreover, side by side with the principles of Analysis will 
be found the application of those principles to Synthesis, 
or Construction. The method of sentence - building here 
given has stood the test of the class-room, and the exer- 
cises will be found both to make Analysis itself intelligible 
and to lay the foundation for Composition. 

IV. 

As one of the professed objects of English Grammar is 
to teach the art o£ writing good English, the last division 
of the book comprises practical exercises in Composition- 



Ylll PREFACE. 

writing. Here an effort has been made to bring the di- 
rections and the exercises down to the average capacity 
of the children in the public schools. The attention of 
teachers is particularly called to this part of the book. 

There seems to be a general desire among thinking teach- 
ers for a clearer, simpler, and more objective method of 
teaching English than that in common use — for a book 
more in harmony with modern English philology. It will 
be for the great body of professional men and women, 
whose plaint at the fruitlessness of old-time grammar has 
filled the educational journals during the last decade, to 
say whether this text-book supplies the desideratum-; but 
the author at least ventures to bespeak for it the favorable 
presumption that attaches to the newest treatment of a pro- 
gressive science. 

William Swinton. 






The acknowledgments of the author are especially due 
to the following works : 

Dalgleish's English Grammar: Edinburg. [The simple method of defining 
the Parts of Speech found in this work have been, in the main, followed in the 
present text-book.] 

Ernest Adams's Elements of the English Language : London. 

Angus's Hand-book of English : London. 

Morrell's Grammar and Analysis : London. 

Higginson's English Grammar : London. 

Collier's Grammar of the English Language : Edinburg. 

Chambers's English Grammar : Edinburg. 

Bain's English Grammar : London. 

Marsh's Lectures : New York. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
EXPI ANATORY e 1 

PAKT*L 

ETYMOLOGY. 
CHAPTER I. 

Classification 5 

CHAPTER II. 

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech H 

1. The Noun 11 

2. The Pronoun 13 

3. The Adjective 17 

4. The Verb 20 

5. The Adverb 23 

6. The Preposition 26 

7. The Conjunction 27 

CHAPTER III. 

Inflection 30 

1. The Noun 30 

I. Number 30 

II. Case 34 

III. Gender 37 

2. The Pronoun 39 

I. Personal Prdhjums 39 

II. Relative Pronouns 41 

III. Demonstrative Pronouns .-. 41 

3. The Adjective 42 

4. The Adverb 44 

5. The Verb 45 

I. Tense 45 

II. Person and Number ". 46 

III. Mood 47 

IV. Voice ." 51 

V. Conjugation 51 

VI. Forms of the Tenses 56 

VII. Irregular Verbs 60 



X CONTENTS. 

PAET II. 

SYNTAX. 

Page 

1. Syntax of the Verb 74 

I. How to Parse the Verb 74 

II. Practical Syntax of the Verb 76 

2. Syntax of the Noun 84 

I. How to Dispose of Nouns 84 

II. Practical Syntax of the Noun 88 

3. Syntax of the Pronoun si 

I. How to Dispose of Pronouns 91 

II. Practical Syntax of the Pronoun 91 

4. Syntax of Adjectives 104 

I. How to Parse Adjectives 104 

II. Practical Syntax of the Adjective 105 

5. Syntax of the Adverb 108 

I. How to Parse Adverbs 108 

II. Practical Syntax of the Adverb 109 

6. Syntax of Prepositions us 

I. How to Parse Prepositions 11,5 

II. Practical Syntax of the Preposition 116 

7. Syntax of the Conjunction 119 

I. How to Parse Conjunctions 119 

II. Practical Syntax of the Conjunction 120 

8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses 124 

PART III. 

ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 
CHAPTER I. # * 

Sentences 134 

Elements of a Sentence 136 

What the Subject may be 137 

What the Predicate may be 138 

How the Subject may be enlarged 1 39 

Expansion of the Subject 140 

How the Predicate may be enlarged 141 

Expansion of the Predicate 142 

CHAPTER II. 

Analysis of Sentences 143 

1. The Simple Sentence analyzed 143 

2. Sentence-Building — the Simple Sentence 145 



CONTENTS. XI 

CHAPTER III. Pa^ 

The Complex Sentence 149 

1. The Complex Sentence analyzed 149 

2. Sentence-Building — the Complex Sentence 156 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Compound Sentence 100 

1. The Compound Sentence analyzed 160 

2. Sentence-Building — the Compound Sentence 165 

PAET IV. 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

1. Suggestions for Teachers 179 

2. Suggestions for Pupils. 180 

3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation 182 

4. Exercises in Composition- Writing 184 

5. Abstracts from Memory 188 

6. Letter-Writing 190 j 

7. Turning Poetry into Prose 193"*' \ 

APPENDIX. 

Conjugation of a Eegular Verb 199 

Synopsis of the Verb Love .* .• 201 

Synopsis of a Verb conjugated 202 

Anglo-Saxon Paradigms 203 

Saxon Verb. 205 

Comparative Table of Tenses in English, Latin, French, and German. . 206 

The Infinitive or Verbal in -ing 207 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note for Teachers. — It is not intended that this grammar should 
be uniformly got by rote. Some parts,%f course, must be so learnt; but 
grammar in general is to be learnt by mind. 

1. The English language is called our mother tongue be- 
cause it is our native speech. We begin to learn it as soon 
as we begin to talk. 

2. We gain our first knowledge of our language by hear- 
ing those around us speak it. This may be called natural 
knowledge of our language. 

3. The pupils who begin to study this book already know 
a good deal about English. They have a stock of words, 
and know how to put these words together into sentences. 
But they can not be sure that they are using words prop- 
erly and framing sentences correctly unless they know the 
rules of the^English language. A knowledge based on these 
rules may be called a grammatical knowledge of our tongue. 

4. The study that teaches the correct use of the English 
language in speaking and in writing is called English Gram- 
mar. 

5. All language is composed of sentences, and all sen- 
tences are made up of words. Hence arise the two grand 
divisions of English Grammar : 

I. Etymology — treating of words by themselves. 

II. Syntax — treating of words combined in sentences. 

Note. — The old division of English Grammar was into "orthography, 
etymology, syntax, and prosody." But orthography, which is a matter 
rather of rote than of rule, belongs to the speller and the dictionary, while 
prosody is properly a part of English composition. 

A 



2 EXPLANATORY. 

6. Etymology treats of— 

I. The arrangement of words in classes; and — 

II. The changes that words undergo to express different 
. relations. 

The first may be called classification; the second, inflec- 
tion. 

It should be distinctly understood that etymology treats of the gram- 
matical changes of words, and of no other kind of change. It has nothing 
to do with the derivation of words : that belongs to historical etymology, 
in contradistinction to grammatical etymology. Thus the change from 
* sweet' to ' sweeter' is a matter of grammatical etymology ; the change 
from ' farm' to ' farmer' is a matter of historical etymology. 

7. Words are arranged in classes, according to the functions 
they perform, or the work they do, in sentences. Thus — 

All words used to maJce statements are put in one class. 

All words used to name things, in another. 

All words used to describe things, in a third. 

8. The several classes of words are called Parts of Speech. 

9. Now, let us see what is meant by inflection. Take the 
naming word river and the asserting word^ows, and you may 
make the sentence ' The river flows.' But suppose you wish 
to denote more than one river, you change the form of the 
word to rivers. The sentence now becomes ' The rivers 
flow.' And here, again, you have changed the form of the 
wordfloios by leaving off s. 

10. Suppose you wish to state, not that the river is now 
flowing, but that it was flowing at some time in the past : you 
say 'The river flowed' Here you have changed the form 
of flow by adding ed. 

11. Take the describing word deep and the naming word 
river. Now suppose you wish to state that a certain other 
river had greater depth than one just named : you will say 
'A deeper river.' Here you have changed the form of the 
word 4 deep' by adding er. These are examples of the hind 
of changes in words that etymology treats of, and these 
changes are called inflections. 

12. Syntax treats of the structure of sentences, with ref- 
erence to the agreement, government, and arrangement of 
words. 






EXPLANATORY. 3 

ILLUSTRATION OF AGREEMENT. 

(1.) If we say 'The mountains is high,' we speak un- 
grammatically ; that is, we violate syntax, because — for a 
reason which the pupil will learn hereafter — the form of the 
word ' is' does not agree with the word ; mountains.' 

ILLUSTRATION OF GOVERNMENT. 

(2.) Take the two sentences, ' They were led on by Mam- 
mon;' 'Mammon led them on.' The word them in the 
second sentence is a change of form of the word they. Why 
does it take this form ? Because — for a reason to be learn-j 
ed hereafter — the word ' led' compels it to take that form, 
governs it in that form. 

ILLUSTRATION OF ARRANGEMENT. 

(3.) The sentence, c Wanted, a young man to take care 
of horses of a Christian disposition,' is an absurdity, be- 
cause the faulty placing of the words ' of a Christian dis- 
position' makes them qualify horses instead of man, which 
they were meant to qualify. The arrangement is wrong. 

13. Whenever we express a thought we use a sentence. 
Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate. 

'Beautiful flowers in the garden.' These words do not make a sen- 
tence, because they do not express a thought. But when we say ' Beau- 
tiful flowers bloom in the garden' we express a thought, and the assemblage 
of words used to express it is a sentence. 

14. The Predicate is the particular part of a sentence that 
makes a statement. 

• The Subject is that about which a statement is made. 

c Haste makes waste' is a sentence. ' Haste' is the subject ; ' makes 
waste' is the predicate. 

15. Sometimes a great many words are used in expressing 
the subject and the predicate, but there will always be some 
one term that we are speaking about, and some other term that 
makes the statement. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

The young and gallant Sydney died on the field of battle at Zutphen. 

The person we are speaking about in this sentence is marked by the 
term or name 'Sydney,' but several other words, the, young, gallant, are 
used along with that term to describe it. What we say about ' Sydney' 
is mainly expressed by the term ' died, 'but other words are connected 
with it to show where he died. 



EXPLANATORY. 



16. The particular term that forms the subject will always 
be what is called a noun, or something having the force of a 
noun ; the particular term forming the predicate will always 
be what is called a verb. 

17. The noun and the verb are tire two principal Parts of 
Speech. They make the frame-work of every sentence. 

18. The various sorts of words used along with the subject 
and with the predicate make up the other Parts of Speech, 
and these are fully explained in the next chapter, on Class- 
ification. 



The English Language has been growing for more than a thousand years. 
It is called ' English' from the word Angles, the name of a tribe of Germans 
who, with the Saxons and other German tribes, settled in Britain about the 
5th century A.D. The language that was spoken by this people is called 
Anglo-Saxon. It was quite unlike our present English, but it is the basis 
of our speech, furnishing the larger part (nearly three quarters, perhaps) 
of our customary words, and the grammatical frame-work of the whole lan- 
guage. Anglo-Saxon was largely influenced by the French language, spoken 
by the Normans, who conquered England in the 11th century. In the 15th 
and 16th centuries it received a very great number of words from Latin 
and from Greek, and subsequently from other sources. Thus we see that 
the English language is a combination of many tongues. By the time of 
Shakspeare, in the 16th century, it had grown into nearly its present form. 
English is a noble language. It is now spoken by nearly one hundred mil- 
lions of people. It is the language of the United States and of British Amer- 
ica, of Great Britain and Ireland, of Australia and New Zealand, and it is 
spoken in South Africa, in India, and elsewhere. To have a free and accu- 
rate use of it is one of the finest of- accomplishments, and such a use the 
study of Grammar should give. 



PAET I 
ETYMOLOGY. 

19. Etymology treats of words individually considered, 
and consists of two parts — classification and inflection. 

CHAPTER I. 

CLASSIFICATION. 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED. 

20. Words are arranged in classes, according to the func- 
tions they perform, or the work they do, in sentences. 

The English Language is made up of a stock of words called its vocab- 
ulary. A complete English dictionary contains upward of 100,000 words ; 
nevertheless, it is found that the whole stock of English words can be as- 
sorted into a very few kinds. Thus all words used to assert are put in one 
class • all words used to name things, in another ; all words used to describe 
things, in a third, etc. 

21. There are eight separate classes of words. These class- 
es are called The Parts of Speech. 

22. The Parts of Speech are: 

1. The Noun. 5. The Adverb. 

2. The Pronoun. 6. The Preposition. 

3. The Adjective. 7. The Conjunction. 

4. The Verb. 8. The Interjection. 

23. Definition I. Nouns name things; as, A violet 'neath 
a mossy stone. 

Noun, from the Latin nomen, a name, is the name of any thing that we 
can perceive by means of (1) the senses or of (2) the understanding. Ev- 
ery thing we think about or speak about — person, place, object, action, or 
thought — must have a name, and every name is a Noun. 

Exercise 1. 

Pick oat the Nouns. 

1. The snow was deep on the hills last week. 2. The sun rises in the 
morning and sets in the evening. 3. The battle of Gettysburg was fought in 
Pennsylvania. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Skating 
on the ice is fine fun for boys. 6. Warren was noted for the sweetness of his 
disposition. 7. Knowledge is power. 



6 ETYMOLOGY. 

24. Definition II. Pronouns stand for Nouns; as, Charles 
went to Paris with his mother, and he came back without her. 

(a) The word Pronoun (Latin pro and nomeri) means for or instead of a 
noun. The use of pronouns is to prevent the repetition of nouns, and to 
make speaking and writing more rapid and less encumbered with words. 

(b) The principal pronouns are : 7, You, He, She, It, We, They, My, Your, 
His, Her, Its, Him, Our, Us, Their, Them, Who, Whose, Whom, Which, 
That, What. 

Exercise 2. 

A. 

Pick out the Pronouns, and say for what Nouns they stand. 

1 . The Arabs are able to catch the ostrich only when they have tired it 
some days by constant chase. 2. Men find plants where they least expect 
them. 3. A boy who is always grumbling will lose the friends that he has. 

4. I hope you will come to see us soon. 5. Who goes there ? 

B. 

Write Pronouns for the Nouns printed in Italics. 

1. The master told the two brothers to tell the two brothers' father that the 
father must get the two brothers new books. 2. The king took the hand of 
the king's earliest friend, and pressed the hand to the king's heart. 3. Philip's 
mother said to Philip, ''Philip must keep Philip's clothes in better order.' 

5. When the ostrich's pursuer approaches the ostrich, the ostrich sticks the 
ostrich's head in the sand. 

25. Definition III. Adjectives describe or limit things; 
as, The early primrose, The distant hills, The three swans, The 
open country. 

The literal meaning of Adjective (Latin ad, to, and jectus, thrown or 
placed) is placed alongside of Adjectives are placed alongside of nouns 
for the purpose of describing or qualifying them, or of showing the extent 
of their signification. 

Exercise 3. 
Pick out the Adjectives, and name the things they describe 

or limit. 

1. Silk-worms are curious and industrious little creatures. 2. Good books 
deserve a careful perusal. 3. They called him a true friend and a noble foe. 
4. Many ships were lost in the storm. 5. There are seven days in a week. 

6. The long, long, weary days are past. 

7. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

26. Definition IV. Verbs make statements ; as, The wild 
cataract leaps in glory ; The revolution of the earth on its axis 
causes the succession of day and night. 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

(a) The essential idea of the Verb is that of asserting or telling. The 
term Verb (Latin verbum, a word) means word, and this part of speech is 
so called because it is the word, the word which gives life to a sentence ; 
in fact, no string of words can make a sentence unless one of the words is 
a verb. 

(b) The definition of Verb may be expanded thus; "A verb is a word 
by means of which we assert (1) what any thing does; (2) what is done-to 
it ; or (3) in what state It exists" 

Exercise 4. 
A. 
Pick out the Verbs, and tell their Subjects. 
My father left me a considerable estate, the best part of which I spent in 
debauchery during my youth. But I perceived my error, and reflected that 
riches are perishable, and are quickly consumed by such ill managers as my- 
self. I further considered that by my irregular way of living I wretchedly 
misspent my time, which is the most valuable thing in the world. I remem- 
bered the saying of the great Solomon, which I had frequently heard from 
my father, "that death is more tolerable than poverty." Being struck with 
these reflections, I collected the remains of my furniture, and sold all my 
patrimony by public auction to the highest bidder. Then I entered into a 
contract with some merchants who traded by sea ; I took the advice of such 
as I thought most capable to give it to me, and, resolving to improve what 
money I had, I went to Balsora, and embarked with several merchants on 
board a ship which we jointly fitted out. — Arabian Nights. 

B. 

The red light shone through the open door, 

From the round, declining sun, 
And fantastic shadows all about 

On the dusty floor were thrown, 
As the factory clock tolled the hour of five, 

And the school was almost done. 
The mingled hum of the busy town 

Rose faint from the lower plain, 
And we saw the steeple over the trees, 

With its motionless golden vane, 
And heard the cattle's musical low, 

And the rustle of standing grain. 

27. Definition V. Adverbs describe actions and qualities; 
as, I have often climbed very steep hills. 

(a) The literal meaning of Adverb is added to a verb, because the Ad- 
verb is most frequently the adjunct of a verb. 

(b) Adverbs describe actions by showing how, when, or where they are 
done. For this purpose they are joined to verbs. 

(c) Adverbs describe qualities by showing how much of them is possessed. 
For this purpose they are joined to adjectives ; as, Very little money. 

(d) Adverbs also limit adverbial descriptions by showing how much of 
them is applicable. For this purpose they are joined to other adverbs ; as, 
He speaks most fluently, and writes very correctly. 



8 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise 5. 
Pick out the Adverbs, and tell what words they describe. 

Softly, peacefully lay her to rest, 

Place the turf lightly on her young breast •, 

Gently, solemnly bend o'er the bed 

Where ye have pillowed thus softly her head. 

When I was a little advanced into the island I saw an old man, who ap- 
peared very weak and feeble. He sat upon the bank of a stream, and at first 
I took him to be one who had been shipwrecked like myself. I quickly went 
towards him, and respectfully saluted him, but he only bowed his head. I 
asked him what he did there, but instead of answering me he made a sign 
for me to take him up on my back and carry him over the brook. I believed 
him really to stand in need of my help, so I took him up on my back, and, 
having soon carried him over, I bid him get down ; but, instead of that (which 
I laugh at heartily every time I think of it), the old man clasped his legs 
nimbly about my neck, and held my throat so tightly that I really thought he 
would have strangled me. — Arubian Nights. 

28. Definition VI. Prepositions link Nouns and Pronouns 
to other words. 

She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, 

And lovers are round her sighing 5 
But coldly she turns from their gaze and weeps, 

For her heart in his grave is lying. 

(a) The preposition from links the noun land to the adverb far ; round 
links the pronoun her to sighing ; from links the noun gaze to turns ; in 
links the noun grave to is lying. 

(J)) The word Preposition means a placing before (Latin pre and positio), 
and is so called because it is placed before a noun or a pronoun. 

(c) Prepositions may be known by observing that they are closely at- 
tached to their nouns, and can not be removed from one part of the sen- 
tence to another except in connection with their nouns. 

Exercise 6. 

Pick out the Prepositions, and tell what words they link. 

1. Indian corn, when ripe in October, is gathered in the field by men who 
go from hill to hill with baskets into which they put the corn. 2. The creak- 
ing of the masts was frightful. 3. We gazed with inexpressible pleasure on 
those happy islands. 4. It happened one day, when going towards my boat, 
I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the 
shore. 5. Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 6. Heaven 
from all creatures hides the book of fate. 

29. Definition VII. Conjunctions connect statements; 
as, Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved ; He chid 
their wanderings, but relieved their pain. 

(a) Conjunctions often seem to join only two words, but the connection 
is really between statements. Thus, in the sentence Charles and Mary 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

survived William, two statements are implied — Charles survived William, 
and, Mary survived William. In such a sentence as ' three and two is 
five,' the and has not the function of a conjunction', it is here used as a 
preposition, and is equivalent to with. 

(6) Conjunction means a joining together (Latin con andjunctio). 

Exercise 7. 
Pick out the Conjunctions, and say what statements they 

connect. 

1. Hamilton and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen. 2. Greene was 
a courageous officer, but Washington was the greater general of the two. 
3. You will succeed if you persevere. 4. We read the newspapers because 
they give us the news. 5. I have not received the letter, though I expect it 
every hour. 

30. Definition VIII. Interjections express sudden feeling; 
as, Alas! how changed ! 

The literal meaning of Interjection (Latin inter an&jectio) is a throwing 
between. This part of speech is so called because it has no grammatical 
connection with the other words in the sentence, but is thrown in to express 
sudden emotion. 

Exercise 8. 

Pick out the Interjections. 

1 . Alas ! poor Yorick. 2. Hurrah ! the work is done. 3. Lo, the poor 
Indian ! 4. Hush ! he sleeps forever. 5. Ah ! where is he now ? 6. Pshaw ! 
it is nothing. 

REVIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. Nouns name things. 

2. Pronouns stand for nouns. 

3. Adjectives describe or limit things. 

4. Verbs make statements. 

5. Adverbs describe actions and qualities. 

6. Prepositions link words. 

7. Conjunctions connect statements*^" 

8. Interjections express sudden feeling. 

HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

31. As words are arranged in classes, according to their 
use in sentences, they are assigned to their proper part of 
speech by inspection ; that is, by carefully noting what is 
their use in the sentence. 

32. The Noun. — Nouns name things. Hence any word 
or expression that has the use of a noun is a noun. 

A 2 



10 ETYMOLOGY. 

Without one if or but, 

'If and 'but,' in their ordinary use as parts of speech, are conjunc- 
tions, but in this sentence they have the use of nouns, and hence are nouns. 

'Walking is agreeable exercise. 

« m m 

'Walking' is properly part of a verb, but being her 3 used as a noun, it is 
a noun. 

.33. The Adjective. — Adjectives describe things. Hence 
any word that has the use of an adjective is an adjective. 

People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 

The word ' glass' is usually a noun, because it names a thing ; but in 
this sentence ' glass' has a descriptive power, and, being used as an adjec- 
tive, is an adjective. 

The Yeeb. — Verbs make statements. Hence any word 
that has the use of a verb is a verb. 

Sometimes we see a ship ; sometimes we ship a sea. 

In its first use ' ship' is a noun, because it names a thing*, in its second, 
a verb, because it makes a statement. 

34. Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Adveebs. — Certain 
words, such as after, before, for, since, etc., are used sometimes 
as prepositions, sometimes as adverbs, sometimes as conjunc- 
tions. 

They are prepositions when they are followed by a noun or 
a pronoun only ; adverbs when they are followed by a verb ; 
conjunctions when they connect statements. Example : 'He 
came before [prep.] me, but left before [adv.] I was done.' ' I 
will not go, for [conj.] I do not want to do so.' 'I have a 
dollar for [prep.] him.' 

35. The word that may be adjective, pronoun, or conjunc- 
tion. 

Give me that [adjective] book. 

What is that? [pronoun.] 

We believe that [conjunction] the earth is round, 

Parsing.— Model First. 

36. Parsing (Latin pars, a part) is telling.the part of speech 
of each word in a sentence. By Model First we simply name 
the part of speech. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

Model First 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

The an adjective, because it describes ' plowman. ' 

Plowman a noun, because it names a thing. 

Homeward an adverb, because it describes the action ' plods.' 

Plods a verb, because it makes a statement. 

His a pronoun, because it stands for a noun — namely, 

the noun ' plowman. ' 
Weary an adjective, because it describes a thing — namely, 

4 way. ' 
Way a noun, because it names a thing. 

Exercise 9. 
Parse the following Sentences according to Model First: 

1. The liberty of the press is the highest safeguard to all free government. 
2. Ours could not exist without it. 3. It is like a great, exulting, and abound- 
ing river. 4. It is fed by the dews of heaven, which distill their sweetest 
drops to form it. *5. It gushes from the rill, as it breaks from the deep cav- 
erns of the earth. 6. It is augmented by a thousand affluents, that dash 
from the mountain top to separate again into a thousand bounteous and irri- 
gating streams around. 7. On its broad bosom it bears a thousand barks. 
8. There genius spreads its purpling sail. 9. There poetry dips its silver oar. 
10. There art, invention, discovery, science, morality, religion, may safely and 
securely float. 11. It wanders through every land. 12. It is a genial, cor- 
dial source of thought and inspiration wherever it touches, whatever it sur- 
rounds. 13. Upon its borders there grows every flower of grace and every 
fruit of truth. 14. Sir, I am not here to deny that that river sometimes over- 
steps its bounds. 15. I am not here to deny that that stream sometimes be- 
comes a dangerous torrent, and destroys towns and cities upon its bank. 
16. But I am here to say that without it, civilization, humanity, government, 
all that makes society itself, would disappear, and the world would return to 
its ancient barbarism. — E. D. Baker. 

%£p For additional pieces to be used in Tarsing, the teacher is referred to 
any School Reader. 

CHAPTER II. 

SUBDIVISIONS of the parts of speech. 

1. The Noun. 

37. Nouns are of two kinds — 

I. Common, II. Proper. 

38. Common Nouns are names of class-objects, ; as boy, 
king, man, city. 

39. Proper Nouns are such as denote individual objects; 
as John, Charlemagne, Thompson, San Francisco. 



12 . ETYMOLOGY. 

(a) Proper (Noun) is derived from the Latin proprius, peculiar ; that is, 
a name peculiar to an individual. To be sure, many persons have the name 
4 James,' and there is a 'Boston' in England as well as in the United States ; 
but James and Boston are nevertheless Proper Nouns, for the reason that 
the former is not common to the class-name man, nor the latter to the 
class-name city. Man and city are Common Nouns, because they name 
all the individuals belonging to the class. 

(b) Proper Nouns are always written with initial capital letters. 

40. A Proper Noun becomes a Common Noun when it 
represents a class ; that is, when it has the use of a Common 
Noun. Thus Swift, Nero, are Proper Nouns; but when we 
speak of the c wit of a Swift? ' the cruelty of a Nero? ' Swift' 
and ' Nero' are Common Nouns, because they are used to 
represent classes of men. 

41. In like manner, a Common Noun becomes a Proper 
Noun when it is used to represent an individual object. Thus 
park is a Common Noun, but The Parle is a Proper Noun. 

Nouns are sometimes further subdivided into Abstract nouns, Participial 
nouns, and Collective nouns. The subdivision is not a sound one. Ab- 
stract nouns are simply common nouns, and no more required to be specially 
distinguished than do Concrete nouns. Certain nouns that appear to be 
participial nouns — that is, that end in ing — are not necessarily participles 
at all ; many of them come from Saxon nouns in ung, as rising, morning, 
etc. ; and, for the rest, any participle that has the use of a noun is a noun. 
The proper treatment of Collective nouns is under the inflection of number 
(see Syntax of the Noun). 

Exercise 10. 

Assign each Noun to its Class. 

Model. — The Cotter's Saturday Night, composed by Robert 
Burns, is a charming poem. 

Cotter's Saturday Night is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- 
vidual object. 

Robert Burns is a proper noun, because it denotes an indi- 
vidual object. 

Poem is a common noun, because it is the name of 

a class-object. 

1. France has not seen such another king as Henry the Fourth. 

2. Hope is as strong an incentive to action as fear. 

3. David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. 

4. The ' Tempest' was the last tragedy written by Shakspeare. 

5. Men and women used to make pilgrimages to Canterbury. 

6. Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales. 

7. The Channel is noted for its rough weather. 

8. Milton is the Homer of English literature. 

9. Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 

10. Many a frozen, many a fiery Alp appeared. 

1 1 . The Times gave an account of Palmerston's death. 

12. Justice, thou art fled to brutish beasts ! 

Exercise 11. 
Give a Common Noun for each group of Proper Nouns. 

1 . Shakspeare, Milton, Homer were poets. 

2. Hudson, Mississippi, Rhine are ? 

, 3. London, New York, San Francisco are ? 

4. Washington, Adams, Jefferson were ? 

5. The United States, Switzerland, Mexico are ? 

6. Webster, Clay, Calhoun were ? 

2. The Pronoun. 

42. Pronouns are of three kinds — 

I. Personal. II. Demonstrative. III. Relative. 

I. Personal Pronouns. 

43. The Personal Pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it/ we, 
you, they. 

44. J and tee denote the person speaking, and are said to 
be of the First Person. 

45. You denotes the person spoken to, and is said to be of 
the Second Person. 

Thou was anciently used instead of you : it is found in the English trans- 
lation of the Bible ; but it is now used only in prayer or on other solemn 
occasions, and in poetry. 

46. He, she, it, and they denote the person or the thing 
spoken of, and are. said to be of the Third Person. 

(a) Note that the personal pronoun of the third person is the only one 
having distinctive words to denote the sexes — he for the male, she for the 
female, and it for sexless objects. The personal pronouns of the first and 
of the second person have no gender, because, there being an actual speak- 
er and an actual hearer, the one is supposed to know the other's gender as 
a matter of course. 

(b) There is an important difference between the personal pronouns of 
the first and of the second person, and the personal pronoun of the third 
person. 'He,' 'she,' and 'it' come fully up to the definition of the pro- 
noun — that is, they stand for Nouns. But for what nouns do 'I,' 'we,' 
and 'you' stand? Properly speaking, they do not stand for nouns at all, 
but are remarkable little words used to express what there is no other 
term to express, namely, the personality of the speaker and of the person 
spoken to. The radical difference between the pronouns of the first and of 
the second person, and the pronoun of the third person, has led the most 



14 ETYMOLOGY. 

advanced modern grammarians to confine the name Personal Pronouns to 
the former, and to class he, she, it with Demonstratives ; but the old no- 
menclature does not lead to any mistakes of practice, and hence it has not 
been changed in this text-book. 

II. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

47. The term Demonstratives is applied to a small class of 
peculiar representative words that can stand by themselves, 
and hence that deserve to be called Pronouns. 

48. The principal Demonstrative Pronouns are : 

This and that In this 'tis God designs ; in that 'tis. man. 

These and those Some place their bliss in action, some in ease ; those 

call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

Each Each seemed the centre of his own fair world. 

Either and Neither. .1 will take either, but you shall have neither. 

One and Other The one puts his sickle into the other's harvest. 

Some. Some fell by the wayside. 

All All consented to the plan. 

Both Here is an apple and an orange : you may have both. 

Many and few Many are called, hxxtfew are chosen. 

None None knew him but to love him ; none named him 

but to praise. 

Such If you are a man, show yourself such. 

So We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; our 

wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 
Each Other and One) Little children, love one another. Kichard andThom- 
another ) as esteem each other. 

Another But never either found another to free the hollow 

heart from pain. 

Any Who's here so base that he would be a bondman ? 

If any, speak. 

Ones My wife and little ones. 

Others Some said it was true, others denied it. 

Much Though much is taken, much remains. 

Former and Latter . . Adams and Jefferson were distinguished statesmen : 
the former was born in Massachusetts ; the latter, 
in Virginia. 

One One is seldom at a loss what to do with one's money. 

They They say that the emperor is ill. 

It ....It was impossible to recognize him. 

There There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 15 



NOTES ON THE DEMONSTRATIVES. 

Note I. — The above Demonstratives are all Pronouns, for the reason 
that they have the power of representing Nouns. They are named Demon- 
strative Pronouns because their use is to point out. The following deserve 
particular notice : 

It The Pronoun It is classed as one of the Personal Pronouns, and right- 
ly so in its ordinary use. Thus, if we say, * This is a large house ; 
it is built of brick,' it is a Personal Pronoun. But there is a pe- 
culiar idiomatic use of it, as in the sentence, 'It was impossible 
to recognize him.' When thus employed, the w r ord it is a Demon- 
strative, and serves to introduce the real subject, which in this con- 
struction comes after the verb. 'It was impossible to recognize 
him' = c to recognize him was impossible.' This may be called the 
idiomatic It, 

There. The word there has sometimes the function of a Pronoun, as in the 
example, There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin = A poor 
exile came, etc. There, thus employed, has the same power as it ; 
that is, it serves to introduce a sentence. 

One. ..There is a peculiar use of the word one, as in the sentence, Owe 
can not but think that all the planets are inhabited. In this use, 
its force is to make indefinite reference. Note that the Pronoun 
'one' is etymologically a different word from the adjective 'one.' 
The latter is from the Anglo-Saxon ane, meaning a or one. The 
former is from the French on, as in on dit — literally one says, that is, 
they say. The French on is a contraction of homme, man. Com- 
pare the German, Man sagt=man says, that is, one says. 

They. The plural Personal Pronoun They has an idiomatic use, as in the 
sentence, ' They say [that is, people say, or it is said~\ that the Em- 
peror is ill.' When so employed, it is to be ranked as a Demonstra- 
tive. Its use is the same as ' one' above ; that is, it makes indefi- 
nite reference. 

Note II. — The class Demonstratives is sometimes subdivided as follows : 

Indefinite Pronouns — Any, Many, Few, One, They, Some, Other, All, 

None, Another, and Much. 
Distributive Pronouns — Each, Both, Either, Neither. 
Demonstrative Pronouns — This, That, Such, So, Former, Latter. 
Reciprocal Pronouns — Each Other, One Another. 
Idiomatic or Introductory Pronouns — It, There. 

^ The derivation of most of these Demonstratives is given in the list of 
Demonstrative Adjectives [^ GO], where most of them recur. 

III. Relative Pronouns. 

49. The Relative Pronouns are icho, which, that, and zohat. 
They are called relatives because they relate, or carry back 
(from re, back, and latus, carried) our thoughts to some other 



r 



1 6 ETYMOLOGY. 

word that goes before them in the sentence. The word that 
the pronoun represents is called the Antecedent. 

50. Who relates to persons. Which relates to the lower 
animals and to lifeless things. That may take the place of 
either who or which. [For the special rules governing the 
use of that, see Syntax of the Pronoun.] 

51. The peculiarity of the relative is, that it makes one 
entence of what would otherwise be two sentences, serving 

the purpose of a connective as well as of a pronoun, and mak- 
ing one of the sentences more prominent, while the other is 
subordinate. 

'The mountain which I climbed is very high.' The thing principally 
asserted is that the mountain is very high ; that I climbed it is a subordi- 
nate fact in the sentence, and "it is connected with the main statement by 
the relative which. The sentence = The mountain is very high, and I 
climbed it. 

52. The pronoun lohat is equivalent to which thing, or that 
which. 

What appears to include in itself both the antecedent and the relative, 
and hence is usually called a compound pronoun. It is, however, simply the 
neuter of who with its antecedent omitted. The antecedent of who may 
also be omitted. There is really no difference of function between who 
and what in the sentences, ''Who steals my purse steals trash-/ and 'What 
is done can not be undone.' 

53. The word as has the force of a relative when its ante- 
edent is qualified by the adjective such; as, 

We are such stuff as dreams are made of. 

54. But is sometimes a negative relative, and its anteced- 
ent is always a negative ; as, 

There is no fireside, how r soe'er defended, 
But has [==that has not] one vacant chair. 

55. The Pronouns who, which, and what, when used in ask- 
ing a question, are called Interrogative Pronouns. 

For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey 
This pleasing, anxious being e'er resigned ? 

Exercise 12. 

A. 

Assign each Pbonoun to its proper Class. 

1. I hope you will give me the book that I lent you. 2. The prince left 
his own carriage, and entered that of the general. 3. One can not always be 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 17 

sure of one's friends. 4. As he entered the field, there sprang up, about three 
yards from him, a large hare. 5. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 
6. What did the prisoner say ? 7. Tell me what the prisoner said. 8. Blessed 
be the Lord, who hath not given us as a prey to their teeth. 9. The men 
whom I spoke to made no answer. 10. The king, who is the head of the 
state, may withhold his consent from a measure which has passed both houses 
of Parliament. 11. Ours are as good as yours. 12. They say that the Secre- 
tary will resign, which will break up the cabinet. 

B. 

1. Who was the thane lives yet. — Shahspeare. 

2. There is no flock, however watched and tended, 
But one dead lamb is there. — Longfellow. 

3. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 
Rough-hew them how we will. — Shahspeare. 

4. What in me is dark, 
Illumine- what is low, raise and support. — Milton. 

5. I dare do all that may become a man ; 

• Who dares do more is none. — Shahspeare. 

6. The old man told him that he worshiped the fire only, and acknowl- 

edged no other God. At which answer Abraham grew so zealously 
angry that he thrust the old man out of his tent. — Jeremy Taylor. 

7. 'Tis the mind that makes the body rich. — Shahspeare. 

8. I have seen him buy such bargains as would amaze one. — Goldsmith. 

9. Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? — Scott. 

10. We have fished up very little gold that I can learn •, nor do we furnish 

the world with herrings, as was expected. — Goldsmith. 

11. Whenever Antonio met Shylock on the Kialto, he used to reproach 

him with his usuries and hard dealings ; which the Jew would hear 
with seeming patience, while he secretly meditated revenge. — Lamb. 

3. The Adjective. 

56. Adjectives are subdivided into three classes — 

1. Common Adjectives; 

2. Articles; 

3. Demonstrative Adjectives. 

57. Common Adjectives describe things by name or quality. 

(a) Under Common Adjectives is included the Participle whenever it 
has the office of an adjective, as, The running water. Under the same 
head are also included what are sometimes called proper adjectives — name- 
ly, those derived from proper names — as, ' English,' ' American.' 

(6) Such compounds as silver-robed, rose-colored, are sometimes called 
compound adjectives ; but the simple term, Adjective, sufficiently desig- 
nates them. 



1 8 ETYMOLOGY. 

58. The Articl'es are The, called the definite article, and 
An or A, called the indefinite article. 

(a) The points out a particular individual, or a group of individuals, of 
a certain class ; as, the apple — a particular apple already referred to or to 
be referred to. 

(b) An or a points out a class to which a thing belongs ; as an applet 
any one of the class called apple. An is from the same Saxon root as the 
word any. Different languages are variously supplied with Articles. The 
Greek and the Hebrew have only the definite article, the Latin has no ar- 
ticle at all*, most of the modern languages, as Italian, French,. German, and 
Spanish, have both articles. The name Article literally means a small 
joint. It seems merely to express that they are small words. They are 
really adjectives in their use, and hence are classed as such in this book. 

59. A is used before words beginning with a consonant 
sound ; as, a man, a house, a wonder, a year, a use, a unit, a 
European. An is used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound ; as, an art, an end, an heir, an hour, an urn. 

(a) The learner must particularly note that the use of a or an depends, 
not on whether the initial letter of the succeeding word is a vowel or a con- 
sonant, but a vowel sound or a consonant sound. Thus ' use' and ' urn' 
both begin with the vowel u ; but in the first instance u has a consonant 
sound, in the second a vowel sound. W and y, beginning words, are con- 
sonants, and words commencing with these letters, or the sounds of these 
letters, take a. Words beginning with the sounded h take a; as, a history ; 
those beginning with h silent take an; as, an honor. The people of En- 
gland ; drop their h's,' in many instances, where we sound them, and hence 
use an where we use a: thus they say an historian. American usage 
sounds the h, and consequently joins a; thus, a historian. 

(6) The n in an is a part of the root (as in Latin units, French un). 
Hence it is not a that becomes an before a vowel or a silent h, according to 
the common rule, but an which loses its final letter before a consonant. 

60. Demonstrative Adjectives point out specific objects. 
TxThe following are the principal demonstrative adjectives: 

This and these used to point out objects near the speaker. 

This pencil take, she said, whose colors clear 
Richly paint the vernal year. — Gray. 

That and those used to indicate objects distant from the speaker — 

And first review that long, extended plain, 

And those wide groves, already passed with pain. — Collins. 

Note. — When two objects are named, this represents the latter, that 
the former. 

Such means like this. Such harmony is in immortal souls. — Shakspeare. 

Such is derived from the Anglo-Saxon swi-lc, and is made up of the 
words swi, meaning this, and lie, like ; hence this like = such. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 

Same is frequently used as a demonstrative adjective. Republican spir- 
it can only be combated by a spirit of the same nature. — Burke. 

Each denotes every individual of a certain class viewed separately : 

Each ivied arch and pillar lone 

Pleads haughtily for glories gone. — Byron. • 

Each is derived from the Anglo-Saxon ce-lc, which is made up of ae, 
meaning 'one,' and lie, like; hence one like = each. 

Every refers to individuals taken collectively = each and all. A storm 

of universal fire blasted every field, consumed every house, de- 
stroyed every temple. — Burke. 

Either.. ..means literally whichever of the two you please. 

Sometimes either has the sense of both. On either side is level fen=on 
both sides. 

Neither, .is either with the negative prefix ne, not. 

Both means two taken together. 

Both is derived from two Saxon words meaning two-two, that is, two 
taken together. 

Many implies number, but does not specify a number. Many men of 

many minds. Many may be joined with a singular noun pre- 
ceded by an or a; as many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

The explanation of this may be that a is here a corruption of of: the 
noun was originally plural, many of flowers. 

Any. , , . . .means one of a certain number, without stating which among the 
number. 

No a contraction of none; as no man liveth for himself. There is an 

idiomatic use of not with the indefinite article a; as in the sen- 
tence, Not a drum was heard, etc. This is the same as no 
drum was heard. 

Some means certain, and denotes number or quantity indefinitely. Some 

pious drops the closing eye requires. — Gray. 

Few means not many. Few persons can bear prosperity. 

All includes universally. All men are mortal. 

No excludes universally. No men are satisfied. 

Note. — In the above list are included various pronouns that are some- 
times classed in distinct groups. It seems needless to make the fine dis- 
tinctions that are drawn, as the term Demonstrative sufficiently denotes 
these adjectives. The following is a common classification of this group 
of Adjectives: 

Demonstrative Adjectives : This, That, These, Those, Same. 
Distributive Adjectives : Each, Every, Either, Neither. 
Indefinite Adjectives: Many, Much, Several, Few, All, No, Other, 

Such, Whole. 
Numeral Adjectives •. One, Two, Three ; First, Second, Third, etc. 



20 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise 13. 
A. 

Assign each Adjective to its proper Class. 

1. A terrible war had been waged for many years. 2. The British coal- 
field|, it is said, will be exhausted in three generations. 3. The murder was 
no deed of a few moments. 4. The false glare of military glory shows mas- 
sacre and rapine decked in the colors of good deeds. 5. The heavy brigade 
was drawn up in two lines. 6. Each soldier knew his duty, and every man 
was prepared to do it. 7. The captain lost both his sons, the one in battle, 
the other at sea. 8. The sisters embraced each other, and took their last 
farewell. 9. There is much wisdom in the words of the old man, but little 
grace in his speech. 10. Nothing is more remarkable than the rapid prog- 
ress of this country in material wealth during the present generation. 11. 
The bloom of that fair face is wasted ; the hair is gray with care. 12. I 
passed some time in the contemplation of this wonderful structure, and the 
great variety of objects which it presented. 

B. 

1. A wise man will make haste to forgive, because he knows the true val- 

ue of time, and will not suffer it to pass away in unnecessary nain — 
Johnson. 

2. Of these, the false Achitophel was first ; 

A name to all succeeding ages curst. — Dry den. 

3. Like other dull men, the king was all his life suspicious of superior 

people. — Thackeray. 

4. These wave their town flag in the arched gateway ; and stand, rolling 

their drum ; but to no purpose. — Carlyle. 

5. And of this remnant will I leave a part, 
True men, who love me still, for whom I live, 
To guard thee in the wild hour coming on, 

Lest but a hair of this low head be harmed. — Tennyson. 

6. There never was, on the whole, a ouieter time than the reigns of the 

two first Georges. — Jeffrey. 

7. O Caledonia ! stern and wild, 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, 
Land of the mountain and the flood. — Scott. 

8. It is a common observation, that objects which in the reality would 

shock, are in tragical and such like representations the source of a 
very high species of pleasure. — Burke. 

9. The Malay has been a fearful enemy for months : every night, through 

his means, I have been transported into Asiatic scenery. — JDe Quincey. 
10. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll ! 

Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. — Byron. 

4. The Verb. 
61. Verbs are divided, according to the function they per- 
form, into, 

I. Complete Verbs. II. Incomplete Verbs. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 

62. A Verb is Complete when by4tself it makes a complete 
statement. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Fishes swim. 

2. Water freezes. 

3. Truth exists. 

4. God is [^exists : here is is used in its absolute sense, 

and is a Complete Verb ; in its ordinary use it is 
an Incomplete Verb. See % 66]. 

63. A Verb is Incomplete when it does not by itself make 
a complete statement. Such Verbs require, in order to make 
sense, the addition of a word called their Complement. j&C 

64. Incomplete Verbs that require as Complement an ob- 
ject (Noun or Pronoun), to which the action expressed by 
the Verb passes over, are called Transitive 'trans, over, and 
ire, to go). 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Solomon built the Temple. 

Explanation. — Built is an Incomplete Verb, because it does not make 
full sense by itself. We ask, ' Built what ?' The answer is, the temple. 
The word 'temple' is the Complement of the Incomplete Verb built. As 
'built' has an object (the noun 'temple') for its Complement, it is a Transi- 
tive Verb. 

2. Music pleases me. 

Explanation. — Pleases is an Incomplete Verb, and it is Transitive, 
because it requires an object — in this case, the word me. The pronoun me 
is in the objective case, and all objects of transitive verbs are said to be in 
the objective case. 

65. Incomplete Verbs that require as Complement a word 
(Adjective, Noun, or Pronoun) relating to their subject are 
called Neuter or Copula Verbs. 

66. The principal Copula Verb is the verb To Be. Other 
verbs belonging to this class are Become, Seem, Appear, 
Grow, Feel, Look, Smell, Taste. 

The peculiarity of these Copula Verbs is that each implies in its mean- 
ing the verb To Be. Thus 'Become' is really to come to be; 'Appear' is 
to be in appearance ; ' Feel' is to be to the touch, etc. 



22 ETYMOLOGY. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Mary was beautiful [adjective-complement of the neuter 

verb was]. 

2. Elizabeth was queen [noun-complement of was]. 

3. It isi~ 5 be not afraid [pronoun-complement of is]. 

4. A boy becomes a man [noun-complement of neuter verb 

becomes]. 

5. Cheerful he seemed, and gentleness he loved [cheerful, 

adjective-complement of the neuter verb seemed]. 

6. Macbeth looked pale [pale, adjective-complement of the 

neuter verb looked]. 

1. Henry VIII. appeared every inch a king [king, noun- 
complement of the neuter verb appeared], 

8. The rose smells sweet [smells, adjective-complement of 
smells=the scent of the rose is sweet]. 

NOTES ON THE VERB. 

Note I. — It is important to note carefully the class to which a verb 
belongs — to observe if it is transitive, neuter, or Complete. We tell to 
which class a verb belongs by inspection ; that is, by studying its sense. 
Such inspection is necessary because — 

(1) The same word is sometimes used as an Incomplete and some- 
times as a Complete verb : Heat melts ice ; Ice melts — the first Incom- 
plete and transitive, the second Complete. 'She reads a book;' 'She 
reads well' — the first transitive, the second Complete. (2) A verb usu- 
ally Complete may become Incomplete. Thus march is a Complete verb ; 
yet we can say he marched his armies ; that is, he caused them to march. 
Water freezes ; cold freezes water. 

Note II. — There are some verbs of this kind : 'To take care of* ' to lay 
hold of. ' Take care of 'is one verb, and lay hold of is one verb. These, and 
others like them, are idiomatic forms ; and in speaking of the verb, the 
words are not to be separated. 

Note III. — Some Complete verbs are followed by an object of similar 
meaning to themselves, as I dreamed a sad dream. He sleeps the sleep 
of death. Some Complete verbs are, properly speaking, reflexive, that is, 
the agent acts upon himself ; but we have almost ceased to repeat the pro- 
noun, and so the verb seems complete without an object. I wash [my- 
self], the cow feeds [herself], he awakes [himself], are used intransitively; 
but I wash the floor, you feed the cattle, he awoke me, are used transitively. 
Note IV.— Certain Complete verbs, when followed by particular prepo- 
sitions, become transitive, and require an object. Thus, The baby laughs 
[Complete] ; We laughed at the clown [transitive, with clown as object]. 
The ragged rascal ran; Earragut ran-down the Atlanta. 

Exercise 14. 
Assign each Verb to its proper Class. 
1. Lives of great men all remind us, 

We can make our lives sublime. I 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 23 

• 

2. Chill penury repressed their noble rage, 
And froze the genial current of the soul. 

3. Some murmur when their sky is clear. 

4. Sir Christopher Wren built St. Paul's. 

5. Virtue is its own reward. 

6. He was a man, take him for all in all, 
I shall not look upon his like again. 

7. Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap. 

8. And there upon the ground I sit, 
I sit and sing to them. 

9. The gas burns brightly this evening. 

1 0. Whatever is is right. 

11. Mohammedans wash three times a day. 

12. Full well they laughed with counterfeited glee 
At all his jokes, for many a joke had he. 

5. The Adverb. 

67. Adverbs are divided into those of — 

1. Time. 2. Place. 3. Manner. 4. Cause. 

68. I. Adverbs of Time express when, how often, or how 
long an action is done ; now, seldom, always, to-morrow. 

69. II. Adverbs of Place express where, whither, or whence 
an action proceeds ; here, whence, aloft, below. 

70. III. Adverbs of Manner express how an action is done, 
or how a quality is possessed ; well, softly, so. This class 
includes the numerous adverbs derived from adjectives of 
quality by adding ly. 

(a.) Care must be taken to distinguish adverbs of manner in -ly from ad- 
jectives in ly, like kindly, daily. The latter are made generally from 
nouns. 

(6.) The suffix ly, which forms so many hundreds of adverbs, is the An- 
glo-Saxon word lie— like: thus boldly = bold- like; only = one -like. 

71. IV. Adverbs of Cause express ichy a thing is done; 
therefore, whence, thence, why. 

72. There are certain adverbs belonging to each of the four 
classes which are used only as connectives. These are called 
Relative Adverbs. They are — 

1. Relative Adverbs of Time ; when, whenever, and w T hile. 

2. Relative Adverbs of Place ; where, whither, and whence. 

3. Relative Adverbs of Manner * how and as. 

4. Relative Adverbs of Cause ; why and wherefore. 



24 - ETYMOLOGY. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 
Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? — Shakspeare. 
The world was all before them where to choose 
Their place of rest, and Providence their guide.— Milton. 

73. These adverbs, unlike all other adverbs, have no mean- 
ing in themselves. 'He came while! does not mean any 
thing ; the sense is suspended till some other words are sup- 
plied, as ' he came while I was speaking! Here while con- 
nects 'I was speaking' with 'he came.' 

NOTES ON THE ADVERB. 

Note I. — The relative adverbs are derived from the same Anglo-Saxon 
root as the relative pronouns who and which. Hence they may "generally 
be resolved . into an antecedent and a relative phrase. Thus, 'He arrived 
when we left' may be resolved into, ' He arrived at the time [antecedent] 
at which we left' [relative clause]. 

Note II. — Adverbial phrases are expressions made up of two or more 
adverbs connected by conjunctions, or they are expressions consisting of a 
preposition with a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Examples : By and 
by, up and down, in and out '; one by one, from below, at length, at all, by 
far, as yet, to-day, to-morrow. 

Note III. — The word the in such expressions as c the sooner the better' 
is not to be parsed by itself; 4 the sooner' and 'the better' should be parsed 
as adverbial phrases. 

Note IV. — Yes and No, which are usually called adverbs of certainty, 
being incapable of standing beside a verb, must be considered as peculiar 
words, rather adverbs than any thing else, and yet not adverbs in the strict 
sense of the term. These words come from verb-roots. Yes means liter- 
ally let it indeed be. No, the term of denial, comes down to us from thou- 
sands of years ago. In parsing, call them Independent Adverbs. 

Note Y. — A number of compound adverbs, such as herein, whereby, 
withal, hereto, etc., are now, except in legal documents, solemn language, 
or poetry, out of date. To these we may add 

Needs; as I must needs go: needs is really the possessive case of need —I 

must of need go. 
Fain ; as / would fain tell you. 
Erst= superlative of ere, formerly. 
Whilom = formerly, 

Belike } 1. It is likely. 

Peradventure > ^perhaps 2. By chance. 
Mayhap ) 3. It may happen. 

Anou.=presently, 
Eke=a?50. 

Exercise 15. 

A. 

Pick out the Adverbs. 

1 . And now a bubble bursts and now a world. 2. Night's already gone. 
3. She weeps not, but often and deeply she sighs. 4. Again thy fires began 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 25 

to burn. 5. Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 6. HI fared it then with 
Roderick Dhu. 7. I am not at all surprised. 8. This mine is by no means 
so good as the other. 8. And ever and anon he beat the doubling drum. 10. 
When once we drink, our name is heard no more. 11. Every one ran hither 
and thither, 12. The lad went away directly after dinner. 

B. 
Pick out the Adverbs. Tell which are Relative Adverbs> 
and what they connect. 
1. Where'er she turns the Graces homage pay. 2. I was much alarmed 
when I saw him in so wretched a condition. 3. The buifaloes go southward 
as soon as winter approaches. 4. The battle was soon ended. 
5. And w T hen above the surges 
They saw his crest appear, 
All Eome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
And even the ranks of Tuscany 
Could scarce forbear to cheer. 

C. 

[Some expressions o. an adverbial nature can be turned 
into single-word Adverbs ; thus^with fragrance=fragrantly. 
In the following, change the expressions in italics into Ad- 
verbs :] 

1. Every thing was done with prudence and wisdom. 2. The bird builds its 
nest with great skill. 3. John did his task in a great hurry. 4. With slow- 
ness and sadness we laid him down. 5. Lift her up with tenderness. 

6. The Preposition. 
14. The English language contains about fifty Preposi- 
tions. They are all used to show the relation of a Noun or 
of a Pronoun to some other word. 

75. The following are among the most important Preposi- 
tions : 

Of The most common use of of is to denote possession ; as, the book of 

the scholar = the scholars book. 
Of expresses many relations, all connected with the original meaning of 
the word, which is proceeding from. 

(1) Of is used to relate the part of any thing to the whole; as c the walls 
of a town.' This may be called the partitive meaning. 

(2) Of 'is used to connect an abstract property with the concrete ; as, the 
lightness of air. This may be called the attributive meaning. 

(3) Of may serve to specify a subject or to make a reference; as, the Book 
of Proverbs. 

(4) The Preposition of with its noun, has often the force of an adjective ; 
as a crown of gold =a golden crown. This may be called the adjective 
meaning. 

(5) Nouns in apposition are sometimes connected by of as { the city of 
Amsterdam. ' 

B 



26 ETYMOLOGY. 

To The primary idea of to is motion towards ; as, he went to the house. 

To is pointedly contrasted with from, as in the phrase ' to and fro.' 
Among the more remote applications of to are to be found such phrases as 
'pleasant to the taste,' ' to one's hand,' ' ten to one,' ' they marched to the 
tune. ' Even in these examples, when motion in the direction of is not di- 
rectly stated, nearness, which is the natural result, is indicated. 
From. . . .means beginning from, proceeding from. Any thing that indicates 
source, origin, or commencement, may be preceded by from. It 
is also applied to time ; as, ''from morn to dewy eve.' 

'It is inferior from what I expected' should be to what I expected. 'Dif- 
ferent to that' should be different from that. 

By the primary meaning of by seems to be alongside of; that is, proxim- 
ity. He sat by the river. Hard by the oracles of God. The other 
meanings grow naturally out of this. Thus, defense of — ' stand by 
me ;' instrumentality — ' eaten by wolves.' 
Words of measuring take by after them, from the circumstance that the 
things measured have to be put side by side, as ' greater by half, ' ' sold by 
the ounce.' So also of time. By this time they are far away = along side 
of or at this time. 

With the radical notion involved in with is joining or uniting. It comes 

from the same root as the noun withe, meaning a twig used to 
bind or unite a bundle of hay. 
From the radical idea comes that of company or companionship ; as, he 
traveled with me for some days. Possession is readily implied in the idea 
of union, as in ' with the hope of.' From union comes the idea of instru- 
mentality, as ' fed with the same food. ' Finally, the use of ' with' to de- 
note opposition (as ' to differ with a person') comes from the fact that an- 
tagonists must join in a struggle. 

76. A Prepositional Phrase is a group of words that, taken 
together, have the power of a Preposition ; as, for the sake of, 
apart from, etc. 

77. The Preposition and the Adverb are closely allied, and 
most of the Simple Prepositions may be used as Adverbs ; 
thus — 

Prepositions. Adverbs. 

He fell down stairs. He moved down. 

I have a pain in the head. Go in, and see him. 

He passed through the town. He passed through. 

78. The Relations expressed by Prepositions are — 

I. Adjective. II. Adverbial. 

79. A preposition expresses the Adjective relation when it 
relates its object to a noun or to a pronoun ; as, a man of taste, 
she with the blctek eyes. 

80. A preposition expresses the Adverbial relation when it 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 

relates its object to a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; 
as, he came in haste ; go with rapidity. 

Exercise 16. 

Say ichat Relation each Preposition expresses; 

1 . The man with the gray coat fell from the top of the wall. 2. We rise 
at seven o'clock in the winter, and in summer at six. 3. James VI., of Scot- 
land, was the great-grand-nephew of Henry VII. of England, the first of the 
Tudor line. 4. There are many proofs of the roundness of the earth. 5. 
The head of the gang listened in silence to the remonstrances of his subordi- 
nates. 6. His head had not been five seconds under water, when he rose to 
the surface, and swam towards the bank. 7. He of the rueful countenance 
answered without delay. 8. As we walked across the bridge, we saw a num- 
ber of fish in the pool beneath us. 9. With patience, you may succeed. 10. 
I have not seen him since Monday, but I expect him within an hour. 11. 
A brilliant meteor shot athwart the sky, and was lost behind the hill. 12. 
The poor bird took refuge in a hole in the oak, and died of fright. 

7. The Conjunction. 

81. Conjunctions are of two great kinds : 

I. Co-ordinate Conjunctions. II. Subordinate Conjunctions. 

82. Co-ordinate Conjunctions serve to join statements of 
equal importance, keeping the connected members on a level 
with each other ; as, 

The snow was deep, and the wind w T as cold. 
He has either forgotten his appointment or he has missed 
the train. 

83. Co-ordinate Conjunctions may be subdivided thus : 

1. Copulative — that is, connecting both the statements 

and their meshing ; as, and, also, therefore. 

2. Disjunctive — connecting the statement, but express- 

ing separation as to their meaning ; as, or, nor, but, 
yet. 

3. Comparative — used after Adjectives, to join the two 

sides of a comparison ; than, as. 
Than (derived from then) is a Conjunction after which the verb is gen- 
erally left out ; as, My brother works harder than you [work]. Some au- 
thors of eminence, however, use such expressions as, Mary, than whom a 
more beautiful woman never wore a crown. In this case than is used as a 
preposition, and governs the objective. 

84. Subordinate Conjunctions serve as steps leading from a 
higher to a lower statement ; as, The barons met in armor, 
because they were resolved to assert their rights. 



28 ETYMOLOGY. 

To this class belong Relative Pronouns used as connectives, Relative 
Adverbs, and such Conjunctions as 

-^ , ,. (If. whether. 

Doubting..... \fa les$ = ifnoL 

Granting Though, although. 

Reason Because, or, for, since. 

Time Before, after, until. 

*HT It will be seen afterward that a knowledge of the structure of sen- 
tences depends greatly upon the clear understanding of the Con- 
junction and its uses. 

85. Some Conjunctions are attended by others which go 
before, and assist either to join or to disjoin in meaning. 
These may be called Correlative Conjunctions. 

And has both Both Louis and Charley came. 

Or " either Either Ella or Willie did it. 

Nor " neither Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. 

As " as Her eyes are as bright as diamonds. 

As " so He is not so bad as he seems. 

That " so She was so tired that she fell asleep. 

Or " whether. . . Whether I go or stay. 

Though " yet Though his heart bled, yet he kept a cheerful 

countenance. 

NOTES ON THE CONJUNCTION. 

And, the principal Copulative Conjunction, is derived from an Anglo-Saxon 
verb — andan, to add. N It means add ; as, Bread and butter = bread 
add butter. 

Or, the principal Disjunctive Conjunction, marks an alternative ; as, Will you 
have an apple or an orange ? 

Or is also used to join two nouns, of which the second is explan- 
atory of the first ; as, the bed, or channel, of the river = the bed, that 
is to say, the channel. In this use the first noun is followed by a 
comma. 

If is a shortened form of gif from the Anglo-Saxon verb gifian, to give. It 
means give or grant ; as, I shall go if you let mQ=grant that you 
let me. 

Because is compounded of by and cause. 

A number of words that, taken together, have the power of join- 
ing, form a Conjunctional Phrase ; as, inasmuch as, as well as, as if 
etc. 

Under the general term Connectives are included not only Con- 
junctions, but Relative Pronouns, Relative Adverbs, and Preposi- 
tions. 

. Exercise 17. 
Tell if the Conjunctions are Co-ordinate, Subordinate, or 
Correlative. 

1. Take heed lest ye fall. 2. I have cut my finger, therefore I can not 
write. 3. I fear I shall fail, but I shall make the attempt. 4. I shall make 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 29 

the attempt, though I fear that I shall fail. 5. He speaks so low that he can 
not be heard. 6. Kemain where you are till I return. 7. He will neither 
come, nor send an apology. 8. It is as cold as Iceland. 9. I know not 
whether to go or to remain. 10. Ask James if he is ready ; and if he is 
ready, tell him to follow as quickly as he can. 11. He did not deserve to 
succeed ; for he made no effort, and showed no interest. 12. I shall not go 
unless you call me, nor will I remain if I can avoid it. 

13. Whether he was combined 
With those of Norway ; or did line the rebel 
With hidden help and vantage ; or that with both 

He labor'd in his country's wrack, I know not. — Shakspeare. 

14. I can wonder at nothing more than how a man can be idle ; but of all 

others a scholar. — Hall. 

1 5. Some murmur when their sky is clear, 

And wholly bright to view, 
If one small speqk of dark appear 

In their great heaven of blue. — Trench. 

1 6. The precise era of the invention and application of gunpowder is in- 

volved in doubtful traditions and equivocal language; yet we may 
clearly discern that it was known before the middle of the fourteenth 
century; and that, before the end of the same, the use of artillery 
in battles and sieges, by sea and land, was familiar to the states of 
Germany, Italy, Spain, France, and England. — Gibbon. 

Parsing.— Second Model. 
86. In Model II. of Etymological Parsing, the pupil is re- 
quired to give not only the part of speech, but the subdivis- 
ion (if any) to which it belongs. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

The The definite article, limiting paths. 

paths. ..A common noun. 

of ...... A preposition, linking glory to paths : adjective relation. 

glory. . . A common noun. 

lead An incomplete verb transitive, the object us being understood. 

but An adverb of manner (=ow/y), modifying the adverbial expression 

' to the grave. ' 

to A preposition, linking grave to lead: adverbial relation. 

the The definite article, limiting grave. 

grave . . A common noun. 

Exercise 18. 

A. 

Parse the following Sentences : 

1. Then shrieked the timid. — Byron. 

2. The grave is the ordeal of true affection. — W. Irving. 

3. So hard a winter had not been known for years. — Milman. 

4. When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept. — Shakspeare. 

5. Each thought on the woman who loved him best. — Kingsley. 



30 ETYMOLOGY. 

6. The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour. — Gray. 

7. We can show you where he lies. — Scott. 

8. Surely, said I, man is but a shadow, and life a dream. — Addison. 

9. What did he achieve and suffer in the world? — Carlyle. 

10. When my time was expired, I worked my passage home ; and glad I was 
to see Old England again, because I loved my country. — Goldsmith. 

CHAPTER III. 

INFLECTION". 

87. Inflection treats of the changes made in words to ex- 
press various relations and meanings. 

88. We can say — boy, and boy's, and boys. 
We can say — man, and man's, and men. 

We can say — sweet, and sweeter, and sweetest 
We can say — walk, and walkm^, and walked. 
We can say — he, and we can say his, and him. 
These are some illustrations of changes in the forms 
of words. 

Inflection enumerates and explains all the possible forms of each part of 
speech ; Syntax directs*which form it is proper to use in each particular 
case. 

89. Inflections generally consist of an addition at the end ; 
as boy-s, lion-ess, swim-s. Sometimes, however, the change is 
made within the word itself; as man, men ; rise, rose. 

90. There are three of the eight classes of words that do 
not change their forms at all. These can therefore give us 
no trouble. They are the Conjunction, the Preposition, and 
the Interjection. This leaves five classes subject to change. 
They are the Noun, the Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, and 
the Adverb. 

I. The Noun. 

91. Nouns are inflected to express differences of Number, 
of Case, and of Gender. 

I. Number. 

92. There are two Numbers, the Singular Number and the 
Plural Number. A noun is Singular when it names one 
thing, as book ; Plural when it names more than one, as 
books. 



INFLECTION. 31 

93. Rule I. The Plural is generally formed by adding s 
to the Singular ; as book, books. 

There were various modes of forming the plural of Anglo-Saxon Nouns ; 
as in an (steor, a star, steorran) and in a (gifa, gifts, plural of gifu). An- 
other class of Anglo-Saxon Nouns formed their plural in -as, which in later 
English became -es, and ultimately -s. This form of the plural-ending be- 
came the main one probably on account of its similarity to the Norman- 
French plural ending s. 

94. Rule IT. Nouns ending in sounds that do not easily 
combine with s form their plural by adding es ; as loss-es, 
fish-es, church-es. 

(a) The sounds that do not easily combine with s are ch soft, sh, ss, s, 
and x. 

(6) Nouns ending in o or i after a consonant form the plural by adding 
es; as, hero, heroes; alkali, alkalies. The reason of this is that the regu- 
lar plural would give the short sound of o and i= herds, alkalis. 

95. Rule IIT. Nouns ending in y, following a consonant, 
change the y into % and add es for the plural ; as duty, duties ; 
glory, glories. 

A reason for this irregularity may be found in the fact that, formerly, 
such words as ' duty,' ' glory,' were written dutie, glorie, and the plural was 
regularly formed by adding s. 

96. Rule IV. Nouns ending iiiforfe make the plural by 
changing /or fe into v 9 and adding es sounded like z ; as 
wolf, toolves ; wife, wives. 

(a) The reason of this irregularity is that, in Anglo-Saxon, the singular 
of these nouns ended in ve. 

(b) Some few nouns ending mff, oof, rf and/e, follow the general rule, 
and add merely s; as hoof turf stuff, fife, strife, reef 

(c) Wharf makes the double plural, wharfs and wharves. 

97. Saxon Nouns. A few nouns of Saxon origin form 
their plural by changing the vowel sound of the singular. 
They are man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; 
tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. 

A few old Saxon nouns form their plurals in en ; as, ox, oxen ; brother, 
brethren. Children, the plural of child, has a peculiar double termination. 
It is thus accounted for : The Scandinavian plural ending er would make 
the word childer (still to be heard in Ireland) ; the English plural would be 
childen. Our plural is a compound of both. 

^ 98. Foreign Nouns. Most foreign nouns retain their for- 
eign plurals. 

1. Pure Latin nouns adopted into our language generally retain their 
Latin endings : 



32 ETYMOLOGY. 

ij/F Nouns in us form the plural in i; as, focus, foci. 

" u um " " " " a; as, datum, data. . 
" "a " " " " ce; as, nebula, nebula*. 
" " ex ' " " " ^ ices ; as, vortex, vortices. 
" " ws (neuter gender) " era; as, genus, genera. 

2. Pure Greek nouns adopted into our language retain the Greek end- 
ings in the plural ; thus — 

Nouns in is form the plural in es ; as, crisis, crises. 

" "on " " " "a; as, phenomenon, phenomena. 

3. Some words adopted from other sources retain their original plurals. 
Thus— 

Hebrew. — Cherub becomes cherubim. 
French. — Beau " beaux. 

Italian. — Virtuoso " virtuosi. 

99. Double Plurals. Certain nouns have two forms of 
the plural, one regular, the other irregular. These distinc- 
tive forms have usually different meanings. Thus — 

Sing. Plur. 

Brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community). 

Cloth cloth (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments). 

Die dies (stamps for coining) .. dice (for play). 

Genius geniuses (men of talent). . .genii (spirits). 

Index indexes (contents) indices (algebraic signs). 

Pea peas (regular). . . fc pease (collective). 

Penny pennies (regular) pence (collective). 

Staff staves (common use) staffs (military term). 

Shot shot (balls) shots (number of rounds). 

Pish fish (collective). fishes (individuals). 

100. Nouns with two meanings in the plural : 

Sing. 1st Plural. 2d Plural. 

Pain pains (sufferings) pains (troubles). 

Custom customs (habits) customs (revenue duties). 

Letter letters (of the alphabet). . .letters (literature). 



^ 



101. Compound nouns generally form their plural by in- 
flecting the principal noun ; as, sons-in-law ; courts-martial ; 

aid-servants. 

(a) When the words are so closely joined in sense that the meaning is 
not complete till the whole is known, the s is added at the end ; as, pail- 
fuls, cup-fuls, forget-me nots. 

(b) We may say either 'the Misses Brown,' or 'the Miss Browns,' or 
even 'the Misses Browns.' 

(c) A firm of Browns is named in England ' the Messrs. Brown, ' but 
we say ' Brown Brothers. ' 

102. The following peculiarities are to be noted : 







INFLECTION. 




. Nouns used 


only 


in the Plural : 




Aborigines. 




Entrails. 


Scissors. 


Annals. 

Antipodes. 

Archives. 




Hustings. 

Lees. 

Matins. 


Shears. 

Summons. 

Thanks. 


Banns. 
Bellows. 




Measles. 
News. 


Tidings. 
Tongs. 


Billiards. 
Breeches. 
Calends. 
Credentials. 




Nuptials . 
Oats. 

Obsequies. 
Odds. 


Trowsers. 
Vespers. 
Victuals. 
Vitals. 


Dregs. 




Pincers. 


Pantaloons 



33 



Riches. 



seems to be plural, but it is really singular, being de- 
rived from the French richesse. Riches profit not 
should be riches profits not. 

NeWS in old English was plural. It is now uniformly singu- 
lar ; as, ill news runs apace. 

Means is to be used in the singular when the signification is 

singular, and in the plural when the signification is 
plural. We may say, this means or those means. 

Summons has a regular, derived plural, summonses. 

Alms is plural in form, but is really singular, being derived 

from the Anglo-Saxon celmesse. 

Politics x 

^tniCS / represent Greek plurals, but are now treated as singu- 

PnjTSlCS y lar. Mathematics is an improving study. Optics is 

Optics ( the science of light. 

Mathematics.... J 

2. Nouns the same in both Numbers : 

Deer. 

Grouse. 

Pish. 

Trout. 

Some of these words have also regular plurals, with a distributive mean- 
ing ; as, fishes, cannons, pikes. 

3. Nouns with a different meaning in the Plural : 



Salmon. 


Cannon 


Sheep. 


Perch. 


Swine. 


Pike. 


Heathen. 


Fowl. 



Compass compasses. 

Corn corns. 

Iron irons. 



Salt salts. 

Domino dominoes. 

Good goods. 



Exercise 19. 

A. 

Give the Plttkal of the following JVoitns : 

1 . Pen ; desk ; book ; knife ; fox ; ox ; foot ; foot-man: 

2. Candle; map; cage; calf; class; hat; sky; toy. 

B2 



34 



ETYMOLOGY. 



3. Cargo; church; monarch; muff; tyro; focus; basis. 

4. Story; dictum; beau; potato; cherub; log; nebula. 

5. Chimey; automation ; genus; proof; axis. 

6. Criterion ; child ; woman ; wife ; kiss ; staff. 

B. 

Answer the following Questions: 

1. Give the two plurals of die, with the meaning of each ; also of brother, 
cloth, and penny. 

2. Mention three other nouns that have two plurals differing in meaning. 

3. Give three nouns used only in the plural, one signifying a pair of things. 

4. What is peculiar in alms, politics, salts, and pains ? 

5. How many meanings has the word letter in the singular ? How many 
in the plural ? 

6. Mention six nouns that have the same form in both numbers. 

II. Case. 

103. A suffix is frequently added to a Noun to mark the 
relation in which that noun stands to other words. Thus, 
in the sun's rays, the 's shows the relation existing between 
the sun and its rays — namely, that the rays proceed from 
the sun. 

104. The simple word and the suffix are together called 
a Case. 

(a) The old grammarians illustrated the changes of Case by the follow- 
ing diagram : 




The perpendicular line represented the Nominative (rectus). If this 
line, moving on a hinge at X, were to fall or be bent downward, it would 
assume the various oblique positions marked G, D, etc., to express the six 
Latin cases, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative^ and 
Ablative. 

The diagram gives origin to the following grammatical terms : x > 

Case, derived from the Latin cado, I fall, each change being denoted by 3v~ 
& falling of the perpendicular line. 



INFLECTION". 



35 



Oblique case, meaning any case except the Nominative ; the other cases V_ 
being denoted by the slanting lines. 

Decline, declension, derived from de, down, and clino, I bend ; the up- 
right line being bent downward. 

Inflect, inflection, derived from in, into, and flecto, I bend. 

(b) In certain languages, many inflections are used to mark the several 
relations of Nouns, and each inflection makes a distinct Case. Thus the 
Latin language had a change of form to express the relation of proceeding 
from a thing — our 'possessive:' this was called the genitive; as, man = 
homo; man's, or of a man=homin-is. But ' to a man' was also marked by * 
an inflection — homin-i; the object of a transitive verb was marked by a 
peculiar inflection — homin-em ; and by or with a man had its own inflec- 
tion — homin-e. 

105. Our language, in its original form of Anglo-Saxon, had 
various inflections of Case which English has now lost. 

Teacher's Note. — The following Comparative Table will show the in- 
flections of the Noun ; man' in Latin, Saxon, and English : 

Latin. Saxon. -p -,. , 

Singular. Singular. & 

Nominative Case . . Homo, Man, Man. 

Genitive HomhWs, Mann-es, Man's. 

Dative Homin-z, Men, (to a) Man. 

Accusative Homin-em, Man, Man (object). 

Ablative Homin-e, Men, (with or by) Man. 

Latin. Saxon. English. 

Plural. Plural. Plural. 

Nominative Homin-es, Men, Men. 

Genitive Homin-wm, Mann-a, Men's. 

Dative Homin-/&«s, Mann-w/?, (to) Men. 

Accusative Homin-es, Men, Men (object). 

Ablative Homin-i'&ws, Mann-wm, (with or by) Men. 

Explanation. — It will be seen from this table that, while the Anglo- 
Saxon had a much less elaborate apparatus of Case-endings than the 
Latin, modern English has still fewer inflections than the Saxon had. 
In fact, we have lost all the Case forms except the Genitive (Possessive), 
formed by adding 's. 

106. There is now but one inflection of case in English 
nouns. This is the addition of an apostrophe with the letter 
s ('s) to the regular form of the noun. Thus, river, river'^. 
This is called the Possessive Case. 

If the pupil will look at the Saxon word man in the table, he will see 
that the possessive (or genitive) case was mannes: so the possessive of 
bird was birdes. It is in this Saxon inflection of the genitive that our pos- 
sessive originates. The apostrophe marks merely the omission of the e. 
The scholar will understand from this how absurd is the notion of some 
grammarians and others, who think that 's is a contraction of his ; as, 
John's book = John his book. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

107. The unchanged noun, standing as the chief word in 
the subject of a sentence, is called the Nominative or naming 
case ; as, The President of the United States is elected every 
four years. 

108. The noun used as object of a verb or of a preposition 
is usually called the Objective case; but as its form is the 
same as that of the nominative, it can not be regarded as a 
real case. 

s*J^{V) Except for the pronouns, the distinction of nominative and objective 
~*would not be kept up, as the form of the noun can never show whether it 
is nominative or objective. These names have a meaning only in construc- 
tion with verbs, the one (the nominative) corresponding to the subject of 
the sentence, the other (the objective) to the object of the sentence. 

(6) Some consider our poverty of case-forms one of the disadvantages 
of English, as it prevents us from changing about in the position of our 
nouns. In Latin, if we say Brutus killed Ccesar, it does not signify in what 
order we place these three words, as the endings of the nouns tell us which 
is he and which is him. We can say either Brutus Ccesarem occidit or 
Ccesarem Brutus occidit, because the form ' Ca3sarem' always denotes Cae- 
sar-Am, and the form 'Brutus,' Brutus-Ae. 

109. A noun is said to be 'declined' when we name its 
three cases. 

Declension of a Noun. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

Nominative Case : Man Men. 

Possessive Case : Man's Men's. 

Objective Case : Man Men. 

General Rule for the Possessive Case. 

110. Possessive Singular. The Possessive Case singular is 
formed by writing apostrophe s ('s) after the singular noun ; 
as, neighbor, neighbor's. 

111. Possessive Plural. The Possessive Case plural is formed 
by writing the apostrophe after the s of plural nouns ; as, 
neighbors, neighbors'. But when the plural does not end in 
5, the 's is added ; as, men, men's. 

(a) When the nominative singular ends in a sound hard to pronounce, it 
has been usual to mark the possessive singular by writing merely the apos- 
trophe ; as, Socrates' wife ; conscience' sake. But it is better in all cases to 
form the possessive singular by writing the apostrophe 5 ('s). It is better 
to write Moses's law than Moses' law ; Charles's book than Charles' book. 
Whether it shall be pronounced or not is a matter of euphony. Men, wom- 
en, boys, girls, and sign-painters make many mistakes in the management 



INFLECTION. 37 

of the possessive. Master the foregoing rules, and the matter need not 
puzzle you any longer. 

(b) The apostrophe placed after the nominative plural of nouns to form 
their possessive marks a contraction of es, the old English inflection of the 
• possessive plural. In irregular plurals, such as men's,, we retain the s, and 
mark the omission of the e by the apostrophe. 

112. In Compound Nouns, the possessive suffix is attached 
to the last word; as, heir-at-law's; the Queen of England's. 

Exercise 20. 
A. 

Give the Possessive, singular and plural^ of the following 

Nouns : 

1. Child ; prince ; woman ; king ; cable ; tutor. 

2. Peril ; mercy ; father ; Henry ; aunt ; cat. 

3. Charles ; gardener ; brother ; poetess ; author ; painter. 

4. Sculptor; engraver; sister; Socrates; princess; bridge. 

5. House; Peter; righteousness; ox; thief; sheep. 

B. 

"Write the following — changing the nouns with prepositions 
into Possessive nouns : 

1. A cap of a boy. 2. The mother of Moses. 3. The dresses of the ladies. 
4. The son of the princess. 5. The pain-killer of Davis. 6. The wrath of 
Achilles. 7. The work of the men. 8. The wool of the sheep. 9. The hat 
of Mr. Jacob. 10. The house of Mr.. Jacobs. 11. The store of the Messrs. 
Woods. 12. The banking-house of Brown Brothers. 13. The houses of my 
sons-in-law. 

III. Gender. 

113. The English speech is the simplest of all languages in 
its rules for gender. We know the gender of any noun by 
its sense. If it denotes a living being, it is Masculine or it is 
Feminine^ according to the sex of the being. If not the name 
of a living being, the noun is said to be Neuter ; that is, nei- 
ther Masculine nor Feminine. 

(a) In many languages, as Latin, Greek, etc., a poetical or figurative 
process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation ; 
by this the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally, and this 
without distinction of sex — the termination of the noun deciding its gen- 
der. This may be called grammatical gender ; but we have in English no 
such thing. On this account our language is free from one of the main 
difficulties • of French gender, namely, the difficulty of determining the 
gender of any noun, which determination must be made before an article 
or an adjective can be used with it. Thus the good sugar is ' le bon sucre' 
( 4 sucre,' masculine), but the good pen is Ha bonne plume' ('plume,' femi- 
nine). 

(b) The term Common gender is applied to Nouns that may be either 
masculine or feminine ; as, parent, child. 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 

114. In English, Sex is usually denoted by the use of dis- 
tinctive words to name the Male and the Female; as, father, 
mother; brother, sister; gander, goose; boy, girl. 

115. There are certain suffixes used to turn Masculine 
Nouns into Feminines. 

(1.) The most common Feminine suffix is ess ; as, actor, 

actress ; giant, giantess; heir, heiress; lion, lioness ; 

poet, poetess. 
(2.) The suffix ix is a feminine inflection used in a few 

Latin derivatives, as, administrator, administratis/ 

executor, executra;. 
(3.) The suffix ine is a feminine inflection in a few words, 

as, hero, heroine; Joseph, Josephs / Paul, Pauk'^6. 

NOTES ON PECULIARITIES OF GENDER. 

(a) The suffix ster was the most common Old English feminine inflec- 
tion ; thus webere meant a male weaver, and webster meant a female 
weaver. But ster is now a masculine termination. This suffix is now 
used as a feminine only in the word spinster; seamstress- seam +str+ ess 
is redundant, containing both the Saxon inflection ster and the French ess. 
So with songstress. 

(6) The word vixen contains the suffix ine. It is really fox-we=a she- 
. fox, and hence is applied to a cross, snarling woman. 

(c) Widower. Widow was in Old English both masculine and femi- 
nine. Afterwards it came to be used as feminine only ; then the suffix er 
was added to denote the masculine. 

(d) Bridegroom. The masculine of bride is bridegroom. The word 
groom is a corruption of Anglo-Saxon guma, man. 

(e) Woman, the feminine of man, is composed of wif (from the same 
root as ' weave') and man (which meant a human being of either sex). The 
literal meaning, therefore, is she that weaves, that is, the weaver. The pro- 
nunciation of the plural of woman preserves the old root wif. 

(f) Lady. The word lord comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlaf-ord= the 
loaf-giver. The y in lady is a feminine suffix, and the word means literal- 
ly the female loaf-giver. 

(#) Beau and Belle (masculine and feminine of the French adjective 
meaning beautiful) are not correlatives. Beau means either a male sweet- 
heart or a dandy, while belle meaos, not a female sweetheart, but a pre- 
eminently beautiful woman. 

(A) In our English poverty of inflection, we sometimes resort to the plan 
of prefixing certain sex-words, as sAe-bear, maid-servant, Aew-sparrow, etc. - 

116. When an inanimate object is represented as a living 
person, it is said to be personified. Thus words of the neuter 
gender become masculine or feminine : 

For Winter came : the wind was his whip. 
One choppy finger was on his lip : 
He had torn the cataracts from the hills, 
And they clanked at his girdle like manacles. 



INFLECTION. 39 

In the same way the sailor speaks of his ship, and the hunter of his gun, 
as she. We speak of the sun as he, and of the moon as she; but our An- 
glo-Saxon forefathers spoke of the moon as he and the sun as she. 

Exercise 21. 
Tell the Gender of the following Words : 

1. Cow. Lass. Mistress. Poet. Gander. 

2. Widower. Aunt. Uncle. Priestess. Goddess. 

3. Lamb. Horse. Cattle. Hogs. Pigs. Chickens. 

4. Pauline. Bridegroom. Ship. Sun. Moon. 

5. Husband. Wife. Steer. Heifer. Gentleman. Lady. 

Ansioer the following Questions : 

1 . Gender in English is a matter of what ? 

2. How many sexes are there ? How many Genders in English Gram- 
mar ? ■ 

3. How many ways are there of distinguishing sex ? 

4. What is peculiar in seamstress and songstress ? 

5. What is the most common termination for the feminine ? 

6. Mention two nouns which have formed the masculine from the femi- 
nine. 

2. The Pronoun. 
I. Personal Pronouns. 

117. The English Personal Pronouns are i"for the first per- 
son ; You for the second person ; He, she, and it for the third 
person. 

118. The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person 
are inflected to express Number and' Case; the Pronoun of 
the Third Person is inflected to denote Number, Case, and 
Gender. 

119. The First Personal Pronoun is I, in the nominative 
case. Its possessive case is my or mine. Its objective is me. 

The nominative plural of Zis We; the possessive plural is 
our or ours ; the objective plural is us. 

120. The Second Personal Pronoun is You, in the nomina- 
tive case. Its possessive case is your or yours. Its object- 
ive case is You, the same as the nominative case. 

The old English Personal Pronoun of the Second person singular was 
thou (Anglo-Saxon thu, Latin tu), but this form is now obsolete except in 
the solemn style. 

The plural of You is you; the possessive, your or yours ; 
and the objective, you, the same as the singular. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

The old English second person plural was ye (Anglo-Saxon ge), but you 
has taken its place in common use, just as you has succeeded thou in the 
singular. 

121. The Third Personal Pronoun is he for the masculine 
gender, nominative case. Its possessive case is his. Its ob- 
jective case is him. 

The Third Personal Pronoun, in the nominative case, is she 
for the feminine gender. Its possessive case is her or hers. 
Its objective case is her. 

The Third Personal Pronoun is it for the neuter gender, 
nominative case. Its possessive case is its. Its objective 
case is it. 

They is the nominative plural of he, of she, and of it. 

The possessive plural of these pronouns is their or theirs; 
their objective plural is them. 

INFLECTIONS OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAE. PLURAL. 



Nom. Poss. Obj. JVbm. Poss. Obj. 

First Person, I, my or mine, me. We, our or ours, us. 

Second, You, your or yours, you. You, your or yours, you. 

(Mas. He, his, him.} 

Third, < Fern. She, her or hers, her. > They, their or theirs, them. 



(Neut. It, its, it. 

Solemn style. — Thou, thy or thine, thee. | Ye, your or yours, you. \ 

NOTES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

(a) The Teacher will find in the Appendix a table of the declension of 
the Anglo-Saxon Personal Pronouns. It throws much light on the present 
forms of our English Pronoun. 

(b) The Pronouns of the First and of the Second Person have two forms 
of the 'Possessive Case : my, mine ; your, yours ; our, ours ; also the Third 
feminine has her, hers. The former of each pair is used attributively, that 
is, when the Noun qualified follows it ; the latter is used predicatively, that 
is, when the Noun is omitted. Thus — 

5 my \ fmine. 

her I \ hers, 

our > house. But, This house is < ours, 
your I ) yours, 

their J ( theirs. 

The former set may be called Adjective Possessives ; the latter Independent 
Possessives. Be careful never to write the Independent Possessives with 
an apostrophe before the s ; that is, never write our's, their's, etc. 

(c) In such sentences as ' Give me [him, her, you, us~] a book' the Pro- 
nouns are really Anglo-Saxon datives, and hence equivalent to to me, to 
him, etc. 

(d) It is a remarkable fact that the word its did not exist in English un- 
til about 250 years ago. It is not found in our English Bible (translated 



INFLECTION. 41 

1611). The place of its was filled by his, which was the possessive case of 
hit (it) just as much as of he. The use of its arose from a feeling of clum- 
siness in employing the same word (his) for the possessive of both ^he mas- 
culine and the neuter pronouns. N. B. — Never write its with the apostrophe 
(it's) when you mean the possessive pronoun. 

(<?) A reflexive form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nomi- 
native and in the objective case, by adding self or selves to the possessives of 
the first and of the second person, and to the objectives of the third person. 

SINGULAR. PLUEAL. 

1. Myself, Ourselves. 

(Herself, 
3. < Himself, \ Themselves. 



(itself. 

The word self is originally an adjective, or attribute of emphasis. Its use 
is twofold : 1st, To express emphasis ; as, Himself mu§t strike the blow. 
The compound pronoun is in like manner added to the simple ; as, I my- 
self wrote the letter. 2c?, To form Reflexive Pronouns, by means of which 
we express that the object and the doer of an action are the same person 
or thing ; as, He killed himself 

(f) The word own joined to the Adjective Possessives both adds empha- 
sis and has a reflexive meaning ; as, This is my own, my native land. 

II. Relative Pkonouns. 

122. Of the Relative Pronouns, who, which, what, and that, 
c who' is the only one that has inflections. Who is thus de-w 
clined : 

Nom. Poss. Obj. 

Sing, and Plur Who, whose, whom. 

123. 'Whose' is sometimes employed as the possessive of 
4 which.' 

124. Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding 
to the simple pronouns the affixes so, ever, and soever; as, 
tvho-so, lohich-ever, whatsoever. 

The general force of these affixes is to imply a universal correlative ; 
as, ' Who-so-ever hateth his brother is a murderer' = Every man without ex- 
ception that hateth, etc. 



III. Demonstrative Pkonouns. 

►nly Demon 
c this' and 4 
plural; the latter, those. 



125. The only Demonstrative Pronouns that have any in-^f 
flections are ' this' and 4 that.' The former has these for the 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 

Exercise 22. 
Tell the Kind, Number, Gender, and Case of each Pronoun. 

1. She; whose; them; its; our; me. 2. Their; us; he; hers; they; I. 
3. Me ; whom ; mine ; yours ; who. 4. They ; thee ; my ; him ; ye ; which. 
5. Ours ; yours ; that ; her ; theirs. 6. We ; you ; his ; it ; what ; her. 
7. Her father gave her a book. 8. The flower that you brought me is dead. 
9. Whom call we gay? 1 0. He shall not touch us. 11. These are our horses ; 
those are theirs. 12. My brother gave me that book a year ago. 

3. The Adjective. 

126. Common Adjectives have but one inflection, the change \ 
to express differences of degree. The inflection of adjectives"? 
is called Comparison. 

In many languages, adjectives are inflected to mark gender, number, 
and case, and in these respects they are made to agree with their nouns. 
A Latin adjective like bonus, good, followed through all its inflections, as- 
sumes nearly forty different shapes. In Anglo-Saxon there were several 
such inflections. Thus, in Anglo-Saxon, the adjective 'good,' used with .a 
masculine noun, was goda, with a feminine noun gode, and with a neuter 
noun gode ; and the nominative plural was go&an. Our language gains in 
simplicity by discarding these adjective inflections, and loses only a cer- 
tain power of varying the order of words. 

127. The degrees of comparison are the Positive, the Com- 
parative, and the Superlative. 

128. I. The Positive is the adjective in its simple form ; as, 
a tall man. 

129. II. The Comparative is formed by suffixing er to the 
positive ; as, taller, shorter. It is used when two objects are 
compared, and indicates that the one possesses the quality in 
a greater degree than the other. 

130. The Superlative is formed by adding est to the posi- 
tive ; as, tailed, shorted. It is used when more than two ob- 
jects are compared, and shows that one possesses the quality 
in a greater degree than all the rest. 

131. When the positive has more than two syllables, the 
adjective is not compared by inflection, but the Comparative 
is formed by the auxiliary more and the Superlative by the 
auxiliary most. This is to prevent forming many-syllabled : 
adjectives. Thus more beautiful sounds better than beauti- 
fuller. 

(a) If euphony allows, long adjectives may be compared with er and est. 
And, on the other hand, even a monosyllabic adjective may be compared 
by more or most, if the ear be satisfied. 



i 



INFLECTION. 



43 



(b) A comparative and a superlative of diminution are formed by means 
of less and least ; as, less grateful, least grateful. 

(c) The Teacher will call the pupil's attention to the rules of spelling 
that come into play on the addition of the suffixes er and est. 

(d) The auxiliary mode of comparison is derived from the Norman- 
French ; the inflected mode is old Saxon. 

132. The following are Irregular Compariso?is : 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Good, 


Better, 


Best. 


Well, 


Better, 


Best. 


Evil, 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Bad, 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Little, 


Less, 


Leasj^: 
MostJT 


Many, 


More, 


Much, 


More, 


Most. 

Farthest, furthest^J^ 

Nearest or next. 


Far, forth, 


Farther, further, 


Near, 


Nearer, 


Late, 


Later or latter, 


Latest or last^ 


Old, 


Older or elder, 


Oldest or eldest. 


Hind, 


Hinder, 


Hindmost. ' 


Up, 


Upper, 


Upmost. - 


Out, 


Utter or outer, 


Utmost. 



NOTES ON THE IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 

00 Good! Better and best [bet-est] are the comparative and the superla- 
tive of the obsolete Anglo-Saxon bet, a synonym of good. 

(20 Bad I Worse and worst are the comparative and superlative of the ob- 
solete Anglo-Saxon weor, a synonym of bad. 

(3.) Old; The regular comparative and superlative are used when old is \ /- 
contrasted with new ; the irregular forms when it is contrasted V" 
with young; as, the older house belongs to the elder brother. But 
older and oldest are often applied to animate beings ; elder and/ 
eldest never to inanimate. 

00 Late! The regular forms later and latest are opposed to 'earlier' and 
4 earliest ;' the irregular forms latter and last are opposed to c for- 
mer' and ' first.' Last is a compression of late-est. 

(5.) Farther, further : Farther, ivom far, means more distant, and is op- x 
posed to nearer ; as, I prefer the farther house to the nearer one. 
Further, from, forth, means more advanced or additional; as, I 
shall mention a further reason. 

(60 Inner, inmost, have no positive: down, downmost, and top, topmost, 
have no comparative; nether, nethermost, are the comparative 
and superlative of neath. &t The suffix most, in these superla- 
tives, is not the adverb 'most.' It is really a double superlative 
ending, compounded of the two Anglo-Saxon endings ma and ost, 
both = est. Hence foremost == fore + ma + ost. 

(7.) Certain comparatives in ior, derived from the Latin, as 'interior,' 'ex- 
terior,' 'superior,' 'inferior,' 'anterior,' 'posterior,' 'prior,' 'ulte- 
rior,' 'senior,' 'junior,' 'major,' 'minor,' are not proper English 
comparatives. They have not the English ending ; nor are they 



&l 



44 ETYMOLOGY. 

followed by than' in composition, but by 'to;' thus we do not 
say 'senior than his brother,' but 'senior to his brother.' They 
share this peculiarity with a few adjectives of Anglo-Saxon or- 
igin ; as, former, elder, latter, hinder, under, inner, etc. 
(8.) Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of change of degree 
are not compared. Examples: 'Certain,' 'dead,' 'empty,' 
'extreme,' 'false,' 'full,' 'infinite,' 'perfect,' 'complete,' 'su- 
preme,' 'universal,' 'round,' 'straight,' 'square,' 'lend,' 'cor- 
rect.' 
Many of these Adjectives are compared in colloquial use and even by 
good writers, and such comparison is allowable on the theory that these 
adjectives are not used in their strict sense. However, we can generall 
avoid such comparisons. In place of saying 'more perfect,' say 'mor 
nearly perfect ; ' in place of saying ' more complete, ' say ' more copious 
in place of saying ' rounder, ' say ' more nearly round. ' 

Exercise 23. 

Give the Comparative and the Supeklattye forms of the 

following Adjectives : 

1. Great ; good ; wise ; ill ; little ; short ; bad ; late. 

2. Near ; fore ; much ; old ; frugal ; few ; valuable ; many. 

3. Patient ; amiable ; high ; low ; pretty ; black ; rich ; heavy. 

4. Hot ; dangerous ; fair ; far ; gentle ; bright ; bitter ; green. 

5. Calm ; gay ; hard ; useful ; red ; light ; truthful ; swift. 

6. Large ; soft ; gentle ; tall ; modest ; merry ; rough ; dark. 

4. The Adverb. 

133. Some Adverbs are inflected to express degrees of |j 
comparison ; as, He calls oftener than he writes. 

134. The comparison of Adverbs follows the same rules as 
that of Adjectives ; as, soon, sooner ', soonest; pleasantly, more 
pleasantly, most pleasantly. 

Many Adverbs, from the nature of their meaning, can not be compared ; 
as, then, now, yesterday. 

135. The following Adverbs, like the Adjectives with 
which they correspond, are irregularly compared : well, ill, 
badly, much, little, far, forth. 

The Adverb rather is the comparative of an Old English Adjective 
rathe, meaning early ; thus — 

The rathe primrose which forsaken dies. — Milton. 

' Rather' means earlier or sooner : I should rather read than write — that 
is, sooner read than write. 

Exercise 24. 

A. 

Give the Comparative and the Superlative forms of the 

following Adverbs : 

1. Largely; plainly; badly; wholly; brightly. 

2. Completely ; little ; possibly ; sweetly ; far ; well. 






INFLECTION. 45 

B. 

Distinguish beticeen Adjectives and Adverbs, remembering 
that Adjectives belong to Nouns, and Adverbs to Verbs, 
Adjectives, and other Adverbs. 

1. I have seen better faces. 

2. He likes this better. 

3. The more mildly I spoke, the more insolently he answered, and there- 
fore the more punishment he deserves. 

4. I have long wished to see her. 

5. I have a long letter from her. 

6. Much fruit. I love him much. 



:ts 



5. The Verb. 

136. The Verb is the most highly inflected of all the Parts " 
of Speech. This comes from the fact that the Verb makes 
statements; and that the action stated may be done by dif- 
ferent persons, at various times, and under several conditions. 
We may say he strikes or they strike; I strike or I struck; 
strike, but hear ; We shall strike, etc. 

137. The Inflections of the Verb are to express Time, Per- 
son, Number, and Manner. Verbs are said to have also Voice, 
and this is explained farther on (see 1" 172-176). 

I. Tense. 

138. Tense (from the Latin tempus, c time') is a change in 
the form of the Verb to express the time of an action. 

139. There are three natural divisions of time — the present, 
the past, and the future. There are, therefore, three primary 
Tenses — the Present Tense, the Past Tense, and the Future 
Tense. 

140. The Present Tense is the simple form of the Verb, and 
expresses what is or is doing ivhen the statement is made ; 
as, I walk, I write. 

141. The Past Tense is formed from the present; it ex- 
presses what was or was done before the statement is made ; 
as, I walked, I wrote. 

142. Verbs generally form their Past Tense from the Pres- 
ent Tense by suffixing ed ; as, walk, walked. Some old En- 
glish verbs form the Past Tense by a change of the root-vow- 
el ; as, write, zvrote. 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 



jtc 



143. The first class are called Regular Verbs, the second 
class Irregular ', old, or strong Verbs. 

(a) Of the four thousand verbs in the English language, all but about 
one hundred and fifty form their past tense according to the general rule, 
that is, by suffixing -ed, and hence are regular. 

(6) The suffix -ed, which is the inflection of the Past Tense, is a con- 
traction of the word did. Thus, loved is 'I love-did,' or, as we still say, 
'I did loye.' 

144. The Future Tense expresses what is to be or is to be 
done after the statement is made ; as, I shall walk, You will 
write. 

145. The Future Tense in English is formed, not by inflec- 
tion, or a change of the word, but by the use of a helping 
word called an auxiliary. This word is shall or will. 

(a) Many languages form their future by inflections : thus the Latin for 
4 1 shall love' is amabo (from amo, I love). We get our way of marking 
future time from the Anglo-Saxon, which used sceal and wille, i shall' and 
' will,' thus : 4 ic sceal niman,' or ' ic wille niman,' which literally means I 
owe to take, I will to take. 

(b) Shall implies obligation or duty — its original signification being to 
owe. Will implies wish or pleasure — the exercise of will. There are 
many nice points about the use of shall and will with pronouns of the dif- 
ferent persons. These points are explained under Syntax. 

146. There are three Secondary Tenses — the Present Per- 
fect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect. These tenses 
are formed, not by inflections, but by the use of auxiliaries. 
The auxiliary have is used to form the Present Perfect, I have 
walked ; the auxiliary had to form the Past Perfect, I had 
walked ; and the auxiliary shall have to form the Future 
Perfect, I shall have walked. 

II. Person and Number. 

147. As there is a Personal Pronoun for each of the three 
persons — 

Is* Person, 1; 2d Person, You ; 3d Person, He (She, It) ; — 

and as each Pronoun has a Plural number — 

1st Pers. PL , We ; 2d Pers. PI. , You ; 3d Pers. PL, They— 

so any Verb is said to be of the First Person, Second Person, 
or Third Person, and of the Singular or of the Plural Num- 
ber, according to which one of these Pronouns it is used with. 



INFLECTION. 47 

148. Thus: 

The Verb walk in 

I walk is said to be in the 1st Person Singular. 

You walk " " " 2d " 

He (she, it) walks. " " " 3d " 

We walk " " " 1st Person Plural. 

You walk " " " 2d " 

They walk " " " 3d 

(a) Take notice that the only inflection or change in the Verbs as thus 
given (present tense, indicative mood) is in the Third Person, singular, 
which takes s. 

(b) In many languages the Verb itself is inflected, that is, it changes its 
termination in every person and in both numbers. Thus in Latin : 

I love was Ego amo. 

Thou lovest i i Tu amas. 

He loves " Ille amat. 

We love " Nos amamus. 

You love " Vos amah's. 

They love " Illi amant. 
Six inflections in Latin ; two inflections in English. 
The old Saxon verb had more inflections than our English verb now has. 
Thus in Saxon : 

I love was Ic lufige. 

Thou lovest " Thu lufas*. 

He loves " He luf ath. 

We love " WeMiath. 

You love " Ge lufiath. 

They love " Hi Miath. 
Four inflections in Saxon ; two in English. 

(c) The common form of our second person singular is You love, and of 
our third person singular, He loves : but we retain from Old English the 
forms thou lovest, he loveth. These are used in poetry and prayer, and 
are called the solemn or ancient style. The inflections est and eth are re- 
mains of the Saxon inflections ast [2dpers. sing.] andatfA [3dpers. sing.]. 

III. Mood. 
149. When we say- 
He writes, 

we make a statement in a very different manner from when 
we say, 

If he write, I will answer ; 

and very different also from saying 

We may write to-morrow ; 
and very different also from 

Write me a letter ; 

and different from 

Scholars learn to write verbs by practice. 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

150. These different ways of making a statement are called 
Moods. Hence Mood (from the Latin modus, manner) is a 
grammatical term meaning the manner of making a state- 
ment. We count five Moods in English. 

151. Indicative Mood.— The statement of 2, fact, or of ajl^ 
matter taken as a fact, is called the Indicative Mood ; as, You i\ 
write. This mood is also used in asking questions. 

152. When this Mood is introduced by the conditional con- 
junctions if though, unless, etc., it may be called the condi-v£/ 
tional form of the Indicative ; as, If he wrote, I did not reJf 
ceive his letter ; Though old age comes upon us, we need not \ 
be unhappy. 

Note. Do not fall into the mistake of thinking that the little words ff, 
though, etc., necessarily make a verb some other mood than the Indica- 
tive (namely, the Subjunctive). A verb is Indicative when it states a fact 
real or conditional, and this whether used alone or with some conditional 
conjunction. Sometimes, indeed, a verb with if or though before it is not 
in the indicative, but in the so-called subjunctive ; and this is explained in 
f 157-161. 

153. The Indicative Mood is used in all the six tenses. 

154. Potential Mood. — The Potential Mood is a way of 
making a statement by means of the auxiliary verbs may,^i 
can, must, might, could, woidd, and should ; as, 'You mustijf-S 
study this lesson ;' ' We may be happy yet.' It expresses 
power, contingency, duty, and some other relations that will 
be better understood when we take up the full verb. 

Some languages express the potential mood by inflection. Thus, Latin, 
Amo, I love ; Amarera, I may love. We form it with the auxiliaries may, 
can, etc. These were complete verbs in Anglo-Saxon, but they have now 
lost all their forms except as auxiliaries. The literal meaning of the form 
'I may love' is I may to love, i. e., I am able to love. Can is from the 
Anglo-Saxon cunnan, to be able. I can walk^I am able to walk. 

155. A conditional form of the Potential Mood is obtained 
by the use of one of the conditional conjunctions (if, though, 
etc.) with the verb; thus, If I may love; if you may write. 

cZ^156. The Potential Mood is used in four tenses — present, 
>^past, present perfect, past perfect. 

157. Subjunctive Mood. — There is a little fragment of the 
verb, called the Subjunctive Mood, that has puzzled people a 
great deal. The matter is really very simple, 

158. The only difference between the Subjunctive Mood an 






INFLECTION. 49 




the Indicative Mood is in the third person singular of two of 
the tenses, the present and the present perfect. Thus — 

Indicative Present. Subjunctive Present. 

(If, though, etc.), he loves. (If, though, etc.), he love. 

Indicative Pres. Perfect. &id>junctive Pres. Perfect. 

(If or though) he has loved. (If or though) he have loved. 

159. The explanation of these differences is, that in what 
is called the Subjunctive Mood there is a little w T ord left out 
— either the word toUl, or the words may, can, should. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. If he see the signal, he will come, is the same as, If he 

shall see the signal, etc. 

2. Though he slay me, yet w T ill I trust in him, is the same 

as, Though he may slay me. 

160. Hence you see that the Subjunctive Mood is really an y 
abbreviated form, either of the Indicative Mood (if shall is^ 
the word omitted) or of the Potential Mood (if may, ca* 
should, is understood). 

161. People nowadays do not pay much attention to the 
nice distinctions formerly made between ' if he loves' and ' if 
he love.' In fact, the little fragment of the Subjunctive Mood 
is rapidly disappearing from our language. 

(a) It is hoped that the foregoing explanation may serve to make plain 
a matter which has been darkened by many words. There is really no 
such thing, in modern English, as a 4 subjunctive mood' — the so-called sub- 
junctives being mere elliptical expressions. A sensible way of parsing the 
Subjunctive Mood when it occurs would be to call it either the \ Conditional 
form of the indicative' (if will be understood), or the conditional form of 
the potential (if may, can, might, could be understood). 

(b) Were it not for the verb to be (which has something like a subjunctive 
form, owing to its being made up of two different Saxon verbs), even the 
name c subjunctive' would not be worth keeping up. 

162. Imperative Mood. — The Imperative Mood of a verb 
is its use in commanding ; as, Go to bed ; Rise early ; Charge, 
Chester, charge ! . 

163. The Imperative Mood has but one tense, the Present-^M* - " 

164. The Infinitive Mood is the name of the action, un- 
limited (from Latin in, not, and Ji?iis, a limit) by Number or \ 
Person. It is generally preceded by the sign to, but not al- 
ways; as, Hike to sing ; we saw him run. The Infinitive i& 
really a Noun. 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

165. The Infinitive is said to have twa tenses — the Presen 
and the Perfect. 

(a) Strictly speaking, the infinitive is not a Mood at all. This form of 
the verb has no subject, and no limitations of number, person, or time. It 
can not make a statement. Its chief use is as the subject or as the object in 
a sentence — and whatever is subject or object must be essentially a noun. 

(6) The Anglo-Saxon Infinitive had two terminations, an and anne. Be- 
fore the latter form to was used ; as, baernarc ; (to) baern-a/we, about to 
burn. 

(c) The Koot, or simplest form of a verb, is the infinitive without to. 

166. Participles. —There is a peculiar form of the verb 
which is called the Participle, because it shares or participates 
in the functions of the noun, the adjective, and the verb. 



# 



x 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1 . Noun use. — The crossing of the Potomac was made in the month of May. 

2. Adjective use. — The crossing army was flushed with victory. 

3. Verb use. — The army was crossing the Potomac and marching on Fred- 
erick City. 

&T When you meet a participial form, call it a noun if it has the use of 
a noun ('Walking is good exercise'), an adjective if it has the use of an 
adjective (' Running water is sweet'), and a verb if it has the use of, or 
forms part of a verb ('John is walking,'' 'is running'). 

167. There are three Participles, the Present, or Progressive, 
the Past, or Complete, and the Perfect Participle. 

168. The Present Participle in all verbs is made by suffix- 
ing 4ng to the root ; as, walk-ing. 

169. The Past Participle of all Regular Verbs (seel 143) is 
formed by suffixing eel to the root ; as, walk-ed. The Past 
Participle of Irregular Verbs is formed in some other way ; 
as, struck, taken, cut. (See list of Irregular Verbs, 1 183.) 

170. The Perfect Participle is formed by joining the auxil- 
iary having with the Past Participle of the verb; as, having 
loved. 

171. Verbal in -ing. — There is a verbal form in -ing that 
is not, strictly speaking, a Participle at all, but that is really 
an Infinitive. Thus, Erring is human = To err is human ; 
We saw the ship sinking in the waves = We saw the ship 
(to) sink in the waves. 

For an explanation of this important form, the Infinitive in -ing, the 
Teacher is referred to the Appendix. 



INFLECTION. 51 

IV. Voice. 

172. Voice expresses the relation of the subject of the verb 
to the action of the verb, as done or received; as, John strikes; 
John is struck. 

173. All Transitive verbs may be put in two forms. In 
the first form the doer of the act is made the subject ; in the 
second form, what was before the object of the verb becomes 
its subject. Example : 

First form. Watt [subject] invented the steam-engine 
[object]. 

Second form. The steam-engine [previous object, now 
subject] was invented by Watt. 

174. The first form is usually called the Active Voice ; the 
second form, the Passive Voice. The Active Voice represents 
the subject as doing something ; the Passive Voice represents 
something done-to the subject. 

175. The Present Participle of the Passive Voice is the 
same in form as the Past Participle of the Active Voice. 
Thus, loved, Past Participle Active, and Present Participle 
Passive. 

176. The Passive Voice is formed by means of the helping 
verb Be and the Present Participle Passive (see Conjugation 
of a Passive Verb, page 59). 

(a) No Complete verb can be thrown into the Passive Voice for the rea- 
son that such a verb can have no object, and only the object of an incom- 
plete verb can become the subject of the Passive Voice. 

The sun shines — 

— is shone by the sun. 
What c is shone ?' You see there is nothing to become the subject. Com- 
pare this with 'Watt invented the steam-engine,' 'The steam-engine was 
invented by Watt,' and you will see that, shines being a Complete verb, there 
is nothing to become its subject in the Passive. 

(b) With the exception of a small class, all verbs in the Passive Voice 
are Complete verbs. Thus, Howard ivas loved; Nero was hated. The 
small exceptional class embraces such verbs as call, think, choose, elect, 
name, consider, and the like. Thus, Newton was called | a philosopher 
[complement] ; Columbus ivas thought | a madman [complement], 

V. Conjugation. 

177. Conjugating a Verb is bringing together all its forms, 
so as to show its tenses, persons, numbers, moods, and voice. 

The Conjugation of English Verbs is exceedingly simple as compared 
with the conjugation of the verbs in many other languages. 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

178. The Principal Parts of a Verb Active are, 

I. Present Indicative ; II. Past Indicative ; III. Past Par- 
ticiple. 

Model of Conjugation of all Regular Verbs in the 
Active Voice. 

To Love. 





PRINCIPAL PARTS. 






Love; Loved; 


Loved. 




INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 




Future Tense. 


i ) 

You ( t 
We M ove - 
Theyj 
He loves. 


You / 

He > loved. 

We 

Theyj 




You 

He > shall [or will] love. 

We 

They j 


Present Perfect. 
I | 
,y U > have loved. 

They j 

He has loved. 


Past Perfect. 

I ) 

You / 

He > had loved. 

We ( 

They j 




Future Perfect. 

|£ U ( shall [or will] 

We ( have loved * 
They ) 



Conditional Form. — The Conjugation of this Mood in the 
conditional form is made by preceding the above by a Con- 
ditional Conjunction, such as if or though ; thus, c If I love,' 
c If I loved,' c If I shall love,' etc. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Pres. Perf. Tense. Past Perf. Tense. 

1 ) z 1 * ) I ) 

You You f You ( i You might 

He > may love. He V might love. He > 1 ^ -, He V have 

We We We lovea * We 1 loved. 

Theyj Theyj Theyj Theyj 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. j 

The Subjunctive Mood is usually conjugated in four tense^K 
— the Present, the Past, the Present Perfect, and the Past i\ 
Perfect. In these tenses the Subjunctive has the same forms 
as the Indicative Mood, except in the third person singular 
of the Present and of the Past Perfect Tense. 

Present — (If) he love. 

Present Perf eet — (If) he have loved. 




INFLECTION. 53 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Second Person, Singular and Plural — Love. 

Note. — Love thou and love ye are the ancient forms of. the second per- 
son, sing, and plural. Let him love, let us love, etc., are sometimes used 
to mark the Imperative Mood in the third and in the first person respect- 
ively. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present: To love. Perfect: To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present: loving. Past: loved. Perfect: having loved. 

Model of a General Synopsis of all Regular Verbs 
in the Active Voice, 

SHOWING INFLECTIONS AND FORMATION OF TENSES. 

Indicative Mood. 
Present Tense : love, or loves. 
Past Tense : loved. 
Future Tense: shall love, or will love. 
Present Perfect: have loved, or has loved. 
Past Perfect : had loved. 
Future Perfect : shall have loved, or will have loved. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense: may, can, or must love. 
Past Tense: might, could, would, or should love. 
Present Perfect : may have, can have, or must have loved. 
Past Perfect : might have, could have, would have, or 

should have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense: love. 
Present Perfect : have loved. 

Imperative Mood. 
Present Tense: love. 
Infinitives : to love, to have loved. 

Participles : ' loving, loved, having loved. 

NOTES ON THE TENSES. 
I. Present Indicative. 
(l._) The present tense has sometimes a future meaning ; as, 
Duncan comes here to-night.' — Shahsjpeare. 
I go to my Father. — Bible. 



54 ETYMOLOGY. 

(2.) The present tense must always be used when expressing a fact univer- 
sally true ; as, the Greeks did not know that the earth is round. 

(3.) The historic present is used when we wish to describe vividly a past 
event as taking place in present time. 

(4.) The progressive present is formed by joining the present tense of the 
verb be with the present participle of any verb ; as, / am writing ; 
he is talking. This means that the person is fully occupied, and 
is not available for any other purpose. 

(5.) The emphatic present is formed by joining the verb do, as an auxiliary, 
to the stem ; as, I do write ; he does sing. Do is employed to 
remove any possibility of doubt. 

II. Past Indicative. 
(1.) The past tense states something which stands as an isolated fact in 

the past. At Athens, the poets sang and the sages talked. 
(2.) The past progressive states a continuous past active; as, I was musing; 

he was speaking. 
(3.) The emphatic past is formed by joining the auxiliary did with the 

stem of any verb ; as, I did say that Ca3sar crossed the Rubicon. 

III. Future Indicative. 
(1.) Shall is used in the first person to express intention ; thus, I shall 
write a letter, means I intend to write a letter. To express in- 
tention in the second and third persons, will is used ; as, you or 
he will write a letter, i. e. , intend to write a letter. Will, in the 
first person, denotes determination ; as, I will go to New York, 
means I am determined to go to New York. Determination, in 
the second and third persons, is expressed by shall ; as, you shall 
go home. 

[For a fuller explanation of ' shall' and * will,' see Syntax.] 

IV. Present Perfect Indicative. 
(1.) The present perfect tense represents a past action with reference to 
present time. I have eaten my dinner means that I, at the 
present moment, am in the condition of having eaten my dinner. 
Hence, when there is any reference of a past action to past time, 
the past tense, and not the present perfect, should be used. This 
tense implies double time, that is, the auxiliary expresses present 
time, and the participle perfect or past time. 

V. Past Perfect Indicative. 

The past perfect tense represents a past event with reference to past time ; 
as, I had eaten my dinner before he arrived. This tense may be 
called a correlative, because it is used only in connection with a 
modifying statement. 



INFLECTION. 55 

VI. Future Perfect Indicative. 

The future perfect tense denotes an action that will happen before some 
other future action ; as, Dear brother, I shall have gone to Eu- 
rope before you reach home. This tense, also, is correlative. 
Of these six Tenses of the Indicative, three express simple time, and 
three denote two kinds or points of time. 

simple time. 
Names, Forms. 

Present; as I write. 

Past; " I wrote. 

Future; " I shall write. 

two kinds or points of time. 
Names. Forms. 

Present Perfect I have written. 

Past Perfect I had written. 

Future Perfect I shall have written. 

The three Compound Tenses all involve a double notion of time, and 
re therefore correlative tenses. The Present Perfect means than an ac- 
tion begun in Past time is finished at the Present time. The Past Per- 
fect is used when we are thinking of two points of Past time. The Future 
Perfect is used when we are thinking of two points of Future time. 

VII. Potential Present 

(1.) The present potential asserts chiefly power or leave to do something. 
It also implies a notion of futurity ; as, I may go to town. This 
comes from the literal meaning of the old verb from which may 
is derived, and which means to have the power. I may go to 
town literally signifies that I have the power of going to town 
(and, impliedly, the inference is that I shall go). 

(2.) The auxiliary must (from the same root as may) also conveys the no- 
tion of force or power, but it is force outside of me. I must go 
to town= here is force that compels me to go ; hence the idea of 
duty. 

VEIL Potential Past. 

Might is originally the past tense of may ; could of can ; would of will ; 

and should of shall. 
(1 .) Observe that when a sentence contains a verb in the past potential, it 

will always have a conditional clause introduced by a conditional 

conjunction, and the conditional clause will always be in the past 

tense. 
(2.) In the conditional form of the past potential, it often happens that the 

conjunction if etc., is omitted; thus, Should I go to town=^/ 

should go to town. Note that in this construction the subject 

(pronoun or noun) comes after the verb. 



bb ETYMOLOGY. 

(3.) The past potential sometimes implies futurity ; thus, I should return 
next week if I were to leave to-day. 

IX. Potential Past Perfect. 
There is a peculiar construction by which the past perfect of the indica- 
tive serves to convey the sense of the past perfect potential ; thus, If thou 
hadst been here my brother had not died (that is, should not have died). 

VI. Various Forms of a Tense. 

Besides the simple forms just given, many of the Tenses \ 
assume other forms — Progressive, Emphatic or Expletive, In-^fi 
terrogative, Negatived 

1. The Progressive Forms, which express the action as go- 
ing 07i, are made by putting the Present Participle Active 
after the parts of the Verb Be ; as, J am striking; he has 
been striking, etc. 

2. The Emphatic Form, which is confined to the Tenses 
without auxiliaries, is made by putting do or did before the 
Infinitive; as, I do strike ; He did go. 

We make the other Tenses emphatic by laying stress on 
the auxiliary ; as, We may see him ; He might have come. 

3. The Interrogative Form is twofold \^^ 

(a) The older and more formal question in the Present 

and Past Indicative simply places the Verb before 
the Nominative ; as, lovest thou me ? Ask we for 
flocks these shingles dry ? 

(b) The common way of asking a question, if there be no 

auxiliary, places do or did before the Nominative ; 
as, Do I look pale ? Did you see him ? 
If there be an auxiliary, it is simply placed nrst ; as, 
Am Hooking pale ? Will you take this ? 

4. The Negative Form is also twofold : 

(a) The older and more formal way, when there is no 

auxiliary, places not after the Verb ; as, I saw not; 
He opened not his eyes. 

(b) The common way of denying, if there be no auxiliary, 

uses do or did, with not after it, between the Nomi- 
native and the Verb ; as, I do not knoio him. 
If there be an auxiliary already in the Tense, not is in- 
serted after it ; as, I shall not see him. 
*HT For the conjugation in all these forms, see Appendix. 



INFLECTION. 57 



VII. New and Simple Way of Conjugating. 

Note for the Teacher. — The author has preferred not to depart from 
what is in the United States the most commonly received mode of conjugating 
the English verb ; however, for the sake of young and progressive teachers, * 
he here adds a very simple mode of treating the verb. This method of con- 
j ligation rests on the principle that 

The real moods and tenses are such only as are formed by inflection ; 
and, consequently, that compound forms made up of a verb (so-called aux- 
iliary) and an infinitive, or of a verb (so-called auxiliary) and a participle, 
are better treated as separate verbs. ^ 

Now it is well known that, for example, in our so-called future tense, as, 
I shall love, he will love, 'I shall' is by itself a verb, equivalent to I owe; that 
1 love' is a real infinitive, and that the compound form is neither more nor less 
than I owe to love ; so he will love is he wills to love. In like manner, the 
so-called subjunctive, as, If he slay, is really If he shall slay. And, finally, 
tenses compounded of the auxiliary and the participle may readily be resolved 
into their component parts. Thus I have written a letter is just I have or 
possess a letter written. 

By this method all the verbs in the English language can be parsed by the 
aid of Two Tenses and Three Moods, with the exception of the verb To 
Be, which has a real subjunctive mood. Now for the paradigm 

To Learn. 

Learn; Learned; Learned. « 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

You ( , You 

We f learn - He > learned. 

They j We 

He learns. They J 

Imperative Mood : Learn. Infinitive Mood : To learn. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present: learning. Past: learned. 

Model of Parsing on the Abridged Plan. 

They may have been there. 

May Auxiliary verb, third plural, present indicative. 

Have A verb in the infinitive, tlje sign to being understood after may. 

Been The past participle of the verb to be. 

He shall be called John. 

Shall Auxiliary verb, third singular, present tense. 

Be A verb in the infinitive, the sign to being omitted. 

Called The past participle of the verb to call. 

« - ' C 2 



58 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Conjugation of the Verb To Be. 
Note. — The conjugation of the verb ' To Be' is given at this point, because 
Be is the auxiliary by means of which the passive voice of all transitive verbs 
*is formed. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. v y 

Pres. Ind. : Am. Past Ind. : Was. Past Part ; Been.A/, 

Future Tense. 



Present Tense. 
I am. 
He is. 
We ) 
You > are. 
They) 

Present Perfect. 

You ! 
We i 
They) 
He has been. 



was. 



> have been. 



Present Tense. 

He 11 l ma y 01 : 

We ( 

They J 



INDICATIVE MOOD 

Past Tense. 

He J 
We 

You > were. 
They) 
Past Perfect. 

You 

He > had been, 

We 

They J 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Past Tense. Present Perfect. 
I ) 




shall or will be. 



Future Perfect. 



shall or will have been. 



can be. 




might, 
could, 
would, or 
should be. 



You / may or 
He > can have 
We ( been. 
They J 



Past Perfect. 
I \ might, 
You [ could, 
He V would, or 
We I should 
' They J have been. 



Present Tense. 
Ifl ) 
If you / 
If he >be. 
If we 
If they J 



Presmt : To be. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past Tense. 
Ifl 
If you 

If he > were. 
If we 
If they, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be. 

INFINITIVES. 

Past : 



erfect7\l^ 



Present Per 
Ifl 

If you I 
If he > have been. 
If we 
If they J 



To have been. 



Present: being. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Past : been. Perfect : having been. 



NOTES ON THE VERB TO BE. 

1. In the solemn style, Thou art is used in the second person ; and in the 
past tense, Thou wast. 

2. The Old English conjugation of the Present Tense was as follows : I, 
he, we, you, they — be ; Thou beest; and in the Past Tenses, Thou wert. 

There be many wide counties in Ireland. — Spenser. 
If thou beest he. — Milton. 
Thou, Stella, wert no longer young. — Swift. 
Before the heavens Thou wert.— Milton. 



INFLECTION. 



59 



3. The forms of the Verb to be are derived from at least two sources : am, 
was, were, etc., are from Anglo-Saxon wesan, to be. Be, been, etc., are from 
Anglo-Saxon beon, to be. The Plural are is of Danish origin, replacing the 
Saxon Plural form in synd. 

4. The conjugation of the Verb to be, in the solemn style, differs from the 
common only in the second person singular, as follows : Ind. Mood : Thou 
art, wast, hast been, hadst been, shalt or wilt be, shalt or wilt have been. 
Potential : Thou mayest be, mightst be, mayst have been, mightst have been. 
Subjunctive : If thou be. 

Model for the Conjugation of all Verbs in the Pas- 
sive Voice. 

179. The Passive Voice is that form of the Verb which ex- 
presses something done-to the subject. 

180. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is formed by \L** 
joining its Present Participle Passive with the verb toJ*ef*b 
fully conjugated. /I 

Note. — As the subject of a Passive was once the object of an Active Verbf 
Passives can be formed only from Transitive Verbs. 

To be Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Past Tense. 
I was 
He was 

We were V loved. 
You were 
They were 
Past Perfect. 

i ) 

You / had 

He > been 

We I loved. 

They) 
Note. — The conditional form of the Indicative is conjugated by putting 
one of the conditional conjunctions, such as if, though, unless, before the sev- 
eral parts given above ; as, If I am loved ; unless he had been loved, etc. 



Present Tense. 
I am 
He is 

We are )> loved. 
You are 
They are 

Present Perfect. 

i ) 

You ( have been 

We ( loved. 

They) 

He has been loved. 



shall be loved. 




shall or will 
have been loved. 



Present Tense. 

i ) 

You ( may or 
He > can be 
We I loved. 

They J 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Past Tense. Present Perfect. 

i ) 

You f may or 
He > can have 



You ) "^ 

tip V could, or 

We f would be 
They ) 



loved. 



If I 

If you 
If he 
If we 
If they. 



be loved. 



We I been loved. 
They J 
^Subjunctive mood. 
If I 
If you 

If he V were loved. 
If we 



If they> 




Past Perfect. 
I \ might, 
You [ could, 
He > would, or 
We I should have 
They ] been loved. 



have been loved. 



If they 



60 



ETYMOLOGY. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Be loved. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present : To be loved. Perfect : To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present : being loved. Perfect : having been loved. 

VII. Irregular, or Strong Verbs. 

181. All Verbs that do not form their principal parts ac- 
cording to the Regular Model (see 1" 178) are called Irregu- 
lar Verbs. 

Modern grammarians style this class of Verbs Strong Verbs, as they 
make their parts by a powerful internal change, and thus stand contrasted 
with the verbs in the -ed inflection, which are styled Weak Verbs. Strong 
verbs are all a heritage from the early Saxon. 

182. Irregular Verbs number less than 200, but they belong 
to the very groundwork of our modern tongue. 

Model for the Conjugation of Irregular or Strong 

Verbs. 

To Write. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Write; Wrote; Written. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



> write. 



Past Tense. 



I 

You 

We 

They J 

He — writes. 

Present Perfect. 
I \ 
You 
We 
They) 
He has written. Thev 



> have written. „ 
We 




Future Tense. 



shall (will) write. 



Future Perfect. 



shall (will) have written. 



Present Tense. 

You 

He > mav write. 

We 

Thev 



Past Tense. 

You / • u* 
He > mi S ht 
We ( 
They J 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Perfect 

Tense.j 

I 

You i 

tt I may have 

written. 



write. 



We 

They. 



Past Perfect 
Tense. 

You / ■ i.* v, 
tt \ might have 

We f written. 
They) 



INFLECTION. 



61 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The subjunctive mood has the same form as the indicative, except iu 
the third person singular of the present, and of the present perfect tense. 

Present : (If) he write. Present Perfect : (If) he have written. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Write. 



Present : To write. 



INFINITIVES. 

Perfect : To have written. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present : writing. Past : written. Perfect : having written. 

List of Irregular, or Strong Verbs. 

183. The following list* contains most of the Strong Verbs 
in English, grouped according to the nature of their internal 
changes : 

I. 
Hoot-voicel modified for Past, and -en or -n added for Parti- 
ciple. 



Present Tense, 


Past Tense, 


Past Part. 


Bid 


bade (bad) 


bidden (bid) .>n._ 


Forbid* 






Bite 


bit 


bitten (bit) 


Break 


broke 


broken (broke) 


Speak 




* 


Bear (cany) 


bore 


borne 


Forbear 






Bear (give birth) 


bore (bare) 


born 


Wear, swear, tear 






Blow 


blew 


blown 


Fly, grow, throw, 


know 




Chide 


chid 


chidden (chid) 


^JL^ Hide 
x^tXChoQsg 


chose 


chosen 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Strive, thrive 






Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


gotten (got) 


. Forget, beget 






Give 


gave 


given 


Forgive 






Hold 


held 


holden (held) 


Lie 


lay 


lain ^— I 



* The Verbs indented are conjugated like those which they immediately follow. 



% 



62 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Past Part. 


Ride 


rode 




ridden 


Stride 








Rise 


rose 




risen 


Arise 








Shake 


shook 




shaken 


Take, forsake 








Shrink 


shrank 


(shrunk) 


shrunken (shrunk) 


Smite 


smote 




smitten (smit) 


Write 








Steal 


stole 




stolen 


Strike 


struck 




stricken (struck) 


Slay 
Tread 


slew- 
trod 




slain * 

trodden ■ ^jf^^ 


Weave 


wove 




woven (wove) 



II. 

Hoot-vowel modi/led for Past Tense, and no suffix in Participle. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 

abode 
awoke^ 

begun 

beheld 
bound 

bled 

clung 
Wring, swing, string, sting, sling, fling 



Abide 




abode 


Awake 




awoke 


Wake 






Begin 




began (begun) 


Spin (no a) 






Behold 




beheld 


Bind 




bound 


Wind, grind, 


find 




Bleed 




bled 


Lead, feed, breed 




Cling 




clung 



Come 




came 


come 


Dig 




dug 


dug 


Drink 




drank (drunk) 


drunk 


Slink (no a), stink, 


sink 




Fight 




fought 


fought 


Meet 




met 


met 


Read 




rSad 


read 


Ring 




rang (rung) 


rung v 


Spring, 


sing 






Shine 




shone 


shone 


Shoot 




shot 


shot 


Sit 

Spit 
Slide 
Stand 




sat 


sat4s* 




slid 

stood 


stood 


Stick 




stuck 


stuck 


Win 




won 


won 


Hang* 




hung 


hung 


Light* 




lit 


lit 



* Those marked with an asterisk are also weak. 



INFLECTION. 



63 



III. 

Hoot-vowel modified, and -t or -d added for Past Tense and 
Past Participle. 

Past Part, 
bereft 



Present Tense. Past Tense, 

Bereave* bereft 

Reave, leave, cleave (split) 
Beseech besought 

Work,* think, seek, buy, bring 
Catch caught 

Teach 
Creep crept 

Weep, sweep, sleep, keep 
Deal dealt 

Mean, leap,* dream* 
Feel felt 

• Kneel* 
- Flee fled 

Hear heard 

J^Lose lost 

\Say said 

Sell sold 

Ten 
Shoe shod 



besought 

caught 

crept 

dealt 

felt 

fled 

heard 

lost 

said 

sold 

shod 



Weak in Past Tense ; 



IV. 

strong in Past Participle. 

Past Part, r 
hoven (heaved^K 
laden 
mown 

sawiC^f 

riven 

waxen (waxed) 
graven (graved) 
swollen (swelled) 
sodden (seethed) 



V. 

JVb Inflections. 

Present Tense. Past Tense. 

Bid (offer to buy). bid. 

Bet,* burst, cast, cut, durst, hit, hurt, knit,* let, put, rid, set 
shut, slit, spread, thrust, wed,* beat (past part, also beaten). 



Present Tense. 


Past Tense. 


Heave (to throw) 


,heaved 


Lade 


laded 


Mow 


mowed 


Sew, show, sow, 


strew, strow 


Saw 


sawed 


Straw 




Rive 


rived 


Wax 


waxed 


Grave 


graved 


Swell 


swelled 


Seethe 


seethed 



Past ParL 

bid -SC-v 

, shed, shred, 



' Those marked with an asterisk are also weak. 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 

VI. 

Some Peculiar Irregular Verbs. 

Present Indicative. Past. Past. Part. 

1. Go, went, gone. 

The past indicative icent is not formed from the root go: it is really a 
contraction of wended, the past tense of the Saxon verb wendan, to wend 
or go ; thus, he went his way=he wended his way. 

2. Have, had, had. 
The past tense had is a contraction of haved (Anglo-Saxon haefde). 

3. Do, did, done. 
With other verbs, do is used (1) to express emphasis ; as, I do believe. 

(2) In negation; as, I do not think so. (3) In interrogation ; as, Do you 
travel by rail ? 

Do, as used in the expression, How do you do ? is a totally different 
verb : this 4 do' comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb dugan, to profit or pros- 
per. Hence, How do you do f means How do you prosper T 

4. Make, made, made. 

The past tense 'made' is a contraction of the Anglo-Saxon macode, that 
is, maked. In other respects, the verb ; make' is regularly inflected. 

154. All Verbs of recent introduction into the language are 
of the weak Conjugation; indeed, the present tendency of 
the language is to convert strong verbs into weak. 

VII. 

Defective Yerbs. 

155. Verbs that are deficient in any of their simple forms 
are called Defective Verbs; as, 

Infinitive. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Part. 

1. shall should 

2. will would 

3. may might 

4. must 

5. can could ■ 

6. Wit wot wist 

7. Owe owe ought 

8. • (me)-thinks (me)-thought 

9. List list 

10. Weather-verbs, such as it freezes, snoics, hails, ?-ains, thunders, etc., 
may be called 'unipersonal verbs,' because they are used in only the third 
person singular. The subject, it, is very indefinite, being merely a mode of 
making the statement. 



INFLECTION. G5 



NOTES OX THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



1. Shall: This verb is found only in the present and in the past tense. Its 
original meaning was to owe ; thus we use should in the sense of ought : he 
should do so = he ought to do so. Hence shall, as an auxiliary, implies obliga- 
tion or necessity, as opposed to free-will or determination expressed by will. 
Should, in the conditional, expresses contingent futurity; in the Subjunctive, 
a future condition. 

2. Will: This verb has two separate meanings and uses : (1) As an auxili- 
ary, it expresses future determination ; (2) Asa principal verb, it denotes the 
exercise of will; as, I will, be thou clean. • 

(1) As an auxiliary, it is found only in the present and past; as, will, 
would. 

(2) As a principal verb, it is regular and weak : I will, I willed, willed, 
to ivill, willing. 

Would, in the conditional, expresses contingent determination. 

3. May : This verb is found only in the present and past ; 2d pers. , mayst, 
and mightest or mightst ; 3d pers., sing., present, may. In conjunction with 
another verb, may expresses (1) permission ; as, 'you may go ;' (2) concession; 
as, he may slay me, but I will trust in him ; (3) with the subject transposed, 
desire ; as, may they be happy. 

4. Must : Only one form of this verb is used ; it is the past tense ; but it is 
also used with a present and a future signification ; as, I must yield now ; I 
must go to-morrow. Under various modifications, must expresses the general 
idea of necessity ; as, he must go. With the first person this often implies de- 
termination ; I must advance (I am so situated that I am determined to ad- 
vance). When it relates to a fact, it implies certainty ; as, it must be so: 
Plato, thou reasonest well. — Addison. 

5. Can : Like shall and may, is found only in the present and in the past 
tense. The / is inserted in could in imitation of would and should, but it is 
a false analogy. The old form is coude. Can, with another verb, expresses 
ability ; I can draw = I am able to draw. 

G. Wtt, means to know (A. S. ivit-an). It is used in the infinitive, to ivit= 
namely. The present, wot, is found repeatedly in the English Bible, in both 
numbers and in all persons : I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed. 
My master wotteth not what is with me in the house. And in Shakspeare, 
. More water glideth by the mill than wots the miller of. The past, wist, is 
also found in the English Bible ; as, Moses wist not that his face shone. And 
in Shakspeare, And if I wist, he did ; but let it rest. 

7. Owe : The earlier meaning of this word is to own, to have ; as, 

To throw away the dearest thing he owed. — Shakspeare. 

Like have, it is also used in the sense of get ; as, 

Say from whence 
You owe this strange intelligence. — Shakspeare. 

But what we have got from another we are indebted for ; hence arises the 
modern sense of the word to be indebted; as, 

What we shall say we have, and what we owe. — Shakspeare. 

Ought is the proper past tense of owe ; but 'I ought' has come to be used 



6 b ETYMOLOGY. 

as an independent verb (like must, without distinctions of person, number, 
or tense) with the meaning, it is my duty (what is due by me). The ordi- 
nary past of owe is owed, 

8. Methinks : The prefix me is the dative of the pronoun. The subject of 
thinks is the clause following it. This word thinks means seems (A. S. thine- 
an, to seem). 

9. List means to please ; The wind bloweth where it listeth. It is found 
only in the present tense. 

Exercise 25. 
A. 

Write a Synopsis of the following Verbs in the 3d Person, 
Singular Number, Active Voice, Indicative Mood: 

Speak ; think ; eat ; laugh ; sit ; sleep ; cry. 
Dress ; rise ; sit. 

B. 

Write the Principal Parts of the following Verbs : 

Fall ; loose ; sing ; work ; shine ; tell. 
Ride ; put ; steal ; catch ; mean ; wear. 
Hurt ; come ; go ; play ; tear ; set ; fly ; hear. 

C. 

Put the following Sentences first into Past, and secondly into 
Future Tenses: 

1. The sun gradually sinks below the horizon. 

2. The grain is ready to be harvested. 

3. The steam-ship is sailing across the Pacific Ocean. 

4. I have come to say good-by to my friends. 

b. It thunders and lightens terribly in the valley of the Platte River. 

D. 

Write a Synopsis of the following Verbs in the Indicative 

Mood, 3d Person, Singular Number, Passive Voice : 

Strike ; eat ; laugh at ; speak to ; stand up. 

Laid down ; pet ; let off ; get up ; think of. 

E. 

In the following Sentences, turn all the Indicative Moods 
into Potential Moods : 

1. No one becomes a scholar without hard study. 

2. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow. 

3. We are going to Yokohama in the great steam-ship Colorado. 

4. I shall go to school to-morrow. 

5. Right whale are not able to cross the line of the equator. 

6. It was impossible for me to go. 

7. By the death of his father, it was made impossible for him to remain 

at school. 



INFLECTION. 67 

F. 

Change the following Verbs from the Active to the Passive 
voice, making the object of the active voice the subject of the 
passive, and preserving the full sense : 

\ . Dr. Livingstone has explored a large part of Africa. 

2. Paul Revere carried to Lexington the news of the intended attack by 

the British. 

3. The first fresh dawn awoke us. 

4. The people of Lynn manufacture great quantities of shoes. 

5. No one has yet reached the North Pole. 

G. 
Tell the Mood of each Verb. 

1. I hear thee speak of the better land. — Hemans. 

2. I hear a knocking at the south entry. — Shakspeare. 

3. Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us 
And show us to be watchers. — Shakspeare. 

4. If my standard-bearer fall .... 

Press where ye see my white plume shine. — Macaulay. 

5. Where shall poverty reside, 

To 'scape the pressure of contiguous pride? — Goldsmith. 

6. Thy kingdom come, Thy will be done. — English Bible. 

7. They that be w T hole need not a physician, but they that are sick. — En- 

glish Bible. 

8. He made his final sally forth upon the w r orld, hoping all things, believ- 

ing all things, little anticipating the checkered ills in store for him. 
— Irving. 

9. Would I describe a preacher, such as Paul — 
Were he on earth — would hear, approve, and own, 
Paul should himself direct me. — Cowper. 

10. Part we in friendship from your land, 
And, noble earl, receive my hand. — Scott. 

H. 
Tell the Moods and the Tenses in the following Sentences: 

1 . The general had taken his departure before the mail arrived. 

2. If nothing unforeseen occur, I shall leave home to-morrow. 

3. I have heard you say that we shall see and know our friends in heaven. 

4. Had any thing unforeseen occurred, he would have written. 

5. Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy God's, thy country's. 

6. To be or not to be, that is the question. 

VEX Uninflected Parts of Speech. 
186. The Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection 
have no inflections. 

(a) The Preposition and the Conjunction themselves express relations 
which do not admit of being modified. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

(b) The Interjection, from its nature as a mere outcry, is free from all 
grammatical restraints. 

Review of the Inflections. 

187. The review of this part of the subject shows that 
words may undergo seven kinds of inflection — the inflection 
of Gender, Number, Case, Person, Comparison, Tense, and 
Mood. ~7*^C 

(1.) The Noun has changes to express Gender, Number, and Case. 

The Pronoun " " " Gender, Number, Case, and Person. 

The Adjective " " " Comparison. 

The Adverb " " " Comparison. 

The Verb " ' " " Number, Person, Tense, Mood. 

(2.) Gender applies to the Noun and Pronoun. 

Number " " Noun, Pronoun, and Verb. 

Person " " Pronoun and Verb. 

Case " " Noun and Pronoun. 

Comparison " " Adjective and Adverb. 

Tense " " Verb. 

Mood " " Verb. 

Parsing.— Third Model. 

Note. — In the Third Model of Parsing the pupil is required to state 
the full etymology of each part of speech ; that is, to name the part of 
speech ; to give its subdivisions, and to name its inflections (if any). The 
following table will guide the pupil as to the order of statement in each 
part of speech. 

1. The Noun. 

1. Kind Common or Proper. 

2. Number . .Singular or Plural. 
Office . . .Subject, Possessive, or Object. 

(1) If subject, say to what. 

(2) If possessive, limiting one. 

(3) If object, complement of what, or linked by what 
preposition. 

2. The Pronoun. 
Kind. . . .Personal, Relative, or Demonstrative. 
Then, if personal, its 

(1) Person (1st, 2d, or 3d). 

(2) Case (nominative, possessive, or objective). 

(3) Gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter, if a 3d per- 
sonal pronoun). 

(4) The represented noun. 



$ 



INFLECTION. 69 

If relative, its 

(1) Number (which will be the same as that of its an- 

tecedent). 

(2) Case (nominative, possessive, or objective, accord- 

ing to its function in the sentence). 

(3) Antecedent. 

If demonstrative, tell what it limits. 

3. The Adjective. 

1. Kind. . . . Common, Demonstrative, or an Article. 

2. Degree. . (If comparative or if superlative, say so; no 

occasion to mention degree if positive). 

3. Office. . .Describes or limits — what. 

4. The Adverb. 

1. Kind Simple or Relative. 

2. Degree (If comparative or superlative). 

3. Office. Describes — what. 

5. The Preposition. 

Office Links what noun or pronoun to what other 

word. 

6. The Conjunction. 

Kind .... Co-ordinate, subordinate, or correlative. 
Office . . Connects what statements. 

7. The Interjection. 
Simply name it as an Interjection. 

8. The Verb. 

1. Kind Complete or Incomplete. 

If incomplete, whether Transitive or Neuter. 

2. Person 1st, 2d, or 3d. 

3. Number Singular or Plural. 

4. Tense Present, Past, Future ; Present Per- 

fect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect. 

5. Mood Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, or 

Imperative. 

6. Voice . If Passive, say so. 

7. Principal Parts.. Present Indicative, Past Indicative^V 

Past Participle. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. , 

^. 8. Conjugation Regular or Irregular (or else Weak 

or Strong). 

9. Subject A Noun or its equivalent. 

If an Infinitive, give 
Its principal parts. 
Its conjugation. 
Its tense — present, past. 
If a Participle, say if 
Present, past, or perfect. 

188. Syntactical parsing takes up the word where Etymo- 
logical parsing leaves it, and gives the function of the word 
in the sentence. 

The syntactical parsing of each part of speech, in all its relations, will be 
found in Part II., Syntax. 

189. The pupil has already been told that the way in which 
a word is used fixes the class to which it ought to belong. 
As the same word may be used in different ways, it must get 
a different name according to each separate use. This sub- 
ject is so important in parsing that a few additional exam- 
ples are here added. 

190. Take the word calm. It may be used, 1. As a Noun 
— a great calm fell on the sea. 2. An Adjective — it was a 
calm, bright day. 3. As a Verb — I did it to calm his fears. 

191. There is considerable interchange of words among the 
three kinds— Adverb, Preposition, and Conjunction. 

But is originally a Preposition, derived from the Impera- 
tive phrase be-out — that is, take out, or except. It is also used 
as an Adverb and a Conjunction ; as, 

Prep. All but him had fied=except. 
Adverb. I have but three left z=only. 
Conj. He heard it, but he heeded not. 

For and Since are also Prepositions, Conjunctions, or Ad- 
verbs, according to their use. 

Adv. I was called for. I told him long since. 

Prep. Is that/br me? Since his arrival. 

Conj. He went, for he was ready. Since you are here, stay. 
Above. Adverb. He lay above. 

Prep. He was ranked above me. 
Note. — A vulgar use oi above as an Adjective, as the above remarks, is to 
be avoided. 



INFLECTION. 71 

In. Prep. I shall call in an hour. 

Adv. He could not hold in his horse. 

Off. Adv. or Prep. He fell off (his horse). 
Adj. The off leader strained his leg. 

No. Adj. I have no silver. 

Adv. In the answer ?io=?iot ; He is no better. 

As. Conj. You may stay, as it is raining. 
Adv. My book is as clean as yours. 

Only. Adj. An only son. 

Adv. I have only two. 

Very. Adj. The very thing. 
Adv. You are very late. 

Then. ^Lcfo. I saw him then. 

Conj. Am I then to stay ? 

Tet. Conj. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 
Adv. Are you sleeping yet ? 

With. Prep. Charles came with John. 

Conj. The side A, with two others, make a triangle. 

"N" *th t I Strictly adjectives of dual meaning, these 
Both e " \ wor ^ s are use d as -Assista?it Conjunctions. 

However. ) These Adverbs are frequently used as Con- 
Meanwhile. >■ junctions to introduce a new sentence or 
Moreover. ) paragraph. 

Example of Paksing by Model III. 

I chanced to rise very early one particular morning this summer, and took a 
walk into the country to divert myself among the fields and meadows, 
while the green was new and the flowers in their bloom. 

I Personal pronoun, first person singular ; nominative, subject to 

verb chanced. 

chanced An incomplete verb, first person singular, past indicative; prin- 
cipal parts chance, chanced, chanced; regular conjugation ; its 
subject is /. 

to rise An infinitive; principal parts rise, rose, risen ; irregular conju- 
gation ; present tense ; complement of the incomplete verb 
chanced. 

very Adverb, describing early. 

early Adverb, describing rise. 

one Demonstrative adjective, limiting morning. 

particular. .Adjective, describing morning. 

morning — Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition on (under- 
stood) to rise. 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

this Demonstrative adjective, singular number, limits summer. 

summer Common noun, singular number, linked by preposition during (un- 
derstood) to mor*ning. 

and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I chanced to 

rise very early,' (I) 'took a walk,' etc., by joining the verbs 
chanced and took. 

took Incomplete verb, transitive ; first person, singular, past tense, in- 
dicative; principal parts take, took, taken ; irregular conjuga- 
tion ; its subject is I (understood). 

a The indefinite article, limiting walk. 

walk Common noun, objective case, complement of took. 

into Preposition ; links country to walk. 

the The definite article, limiting country. 

country Common noun, linked by into to walk. 

to divert. . .An infinitive ; principal parts divert, diverted, diverted; irregular 
conjugation. 

myself Compound personal pronoun, first person singular, objective case, 

complement of divert. 

among Preposition ; links fields to divert. 

the The definite article, limiting fields. 

fields Common noun, plural number, linked by among to divert. 

and Co-ordinate conjunction ; connects the statements ' I took a walk 

among the fields' and 'I took, etc., among the meadows' by 
joining the words fields and meadows. 

meadows. ..Common noun, plural number, linked by among (understood) to 
divert. 

while Kelative adverb ; joins the statements 'the green was new' and 'I 

took a walk into the country,' etc. 

the The definite article, limiting green. 

green Common noun (used for greenness), singular number, subject of 

was. 

was Incomplete verb, third person singular, past indicative ; principal 

parts am, was, been ; irregular ; its subject is $reen. 

new Common adjective ; complement of was ; describes green. 

and Co-ordinate conjunction ; joins statements before and after. 

the Definite article, limiting flowers. 

flowers. . . ..Common noun, plural number, subject of were (understood). 

in Preposition *, links bloom to were (understood). 

their Personal pronoun, third person plural; neuter; possessive case, 

describing bloom and representing flowers. 

bloom Common noun, singular ; linked by in to were (understood). 

Exercise 26. 

Sentences for Parsing. 

A. 

1. Holy and heavenly thoughts shall counsel her. — Shakspeare. 

2. Then rose from sea to sky the wild farewell. — Byron. 

3. The better part of valor is discretion. — Shakspeare. 

4. The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled. — Hemans. 



INFLECTION. 73 

5. The steed along the drawbridge flies. — Scott. 

G. I could hear my friend chide him for not finding out some work, but 

at the same time saw him put his hand in his pocket and give him 

sixpence. — Spectator. 

7. I long for a repose which ever is the same. — Wordsworth. 

8. Thou knowest my praise of nature most sincere, 
And that my raptures are not conjured up 

To serve occasions of poetic pomp, 

But genuine, and art partner of them all. — Cowper. 

9. There were two fathers in this ghastly crew. — Byron. 

10. When he read the note from the two ladies, he shook his head, and 

observed that an affair of this sort demanded the utmost circumspec- 
tion. — Goldsmith. 

11. What matter where, if I be still the same, 
And what I should be, all but less" than he 
Whom thunder hath made greater. — Milton. 

12. Whilst I was thus musing, I cast my eyes towards the summit of a 

rock that was not far from me, where I (^covered one in the habit 
of a shepherd, with a little musical instrument in his hand. — Ad- 
dison. 

B. 

1. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. — Scott. 

2. None but the brave deserves the fair. — Dry den. 

3. The nurse sleeps sweetly, hired to watch the sick 
Whom snoring she disturbs. — Cowper. 

4. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. — Thomson. 

5. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. — Milton. 

6. The night had closed in before the conflict on the boom began. — 

Macaulay. 

7. When kindness had his wants supplied, 
And the old man was gratified, 
Began to rise his minstrel pride. — Scott. 

8. At every draught more large and large they grow, 
A bloated mass of rank, unwieldy woe ; 

Till sapp'd their strength, and every part unsound, 

Down, down they sink, and spread a ruin round. — Macaulay. 

9. The friends thou hast and their adoption tried, 
Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel ; 
But do not dull thy palm with entertainment 

Of each new-hatch'd unfledged comrade. — Shaksptare. 
10. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills to be the mast 
Of some great ammiral were but a wand, 
He walked with, to support uneasy steps 
Over the burning marie. — Milton. 

D 



PAET II. 
SYNTAX. 

192. Syntax (from Greek sun, together, and taxis, a putting 
in order) treats of the Agreement, Government, and Arrange- 
ment of words in sentences. 

Note. — In this text-book, Parsing, or how to dispose of words, which 
is the theoretical part of Syntax, is carefully separated from Practical 
Syntax, or those rules and principles that are of real application, since 
they may be violated in the actual forms of words. The syntax of each 
part of speech is taken up under two heads : 1st. How to Parse the Part 
of Speech ; 2d. The Practical Syntax of the Part of Speech. It is believed 
that this separation of what is purely formal from those rules that admit of 
being violated in the inflections of words will, by concentrating the attention 
of the learner on the practical part, be a powerful aid in learning to ' ' speak 
and write English correctly" — the professed design of English Grammar. 

1. Syntax of the Verb. 
I. How to Paese Verbs. 

193. A verb in a sentence is parsed, or disposed of, by 
saying — 

It makes a statement about its subject [naming it], and 
agrees with that subject in number and "person. 

194. The subject of a verb may be — 

(1.) A noun: Migland [noun-subject] was conquered by 
the Normans; Water consists of oxygen and hy- 
drogen. 
(2.) A pronoun: They [pronoun-subject] study gram- 
mar; The emperor Napoleon [noun -subject of 
verb died], who [pronoun-subject] was banished 
to St. Helena, died in 1820. 
(3.) An expression: To reach the Indies [phrase-subject] 
was the object of Columbus; Where De Soto was 
buried [clause -subject] can not be determined; 
That you have wronged me [clause-subject] doth 
appear in this. 
Expressions like ' to reach the Indies' are called phrases. ' Where De 
Soto was buried,' * that you have wronged me,' are called clauses [for a full 
explanation of phrases and clauses, see % 357 and 364]. Such expressions 
are parsed as in the third person, singular number. 



HOW TO PARSE VERBS. 75 

195. An Infinitive is parsed by saying — J\ 
It depends on the word — [naming it]. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Alexander tried to conquer [dependent on c tried'] the 

whole world. 
Here the infinitive depends on another Verb. 

2. Washington was too truthful to lie [dependent on 'truth- 

ful']. 
Here the infinitive depends on an Adjective. 

3. Howard sought opportunities to benefit [dependent on 

opportunities prisoners. 
Here the infinitive depends on a Noun. 

4. I was not such a coward as to run [dependent on the 

expression ' such a coward as']. 
Here the infinitive depends on an expression as a whole ; and this is 
often the case. 
Note. — Observe that when an infinitive is used as the subject of a verb, 
it performs the office of a Noun, and is to be parsed as such. Example : 
To delay is dangerous =Delay is dangerous. # 

196. A Participle is parsed by saying — 

It belongs to the Noun or the Pronoun— [naming It]. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

. 1. A Peri, standing at heaven's gate, was sad. 
The participle 'standing' belongs to the noun 'Peri.' 
2. Charles, having seen me, ran into the house. 

The participle 'having seen' belongs to the noun 'Charles.' 

196. A Participle is frequently used purely as a noun or as 
an adjective. In such cases it is to be parsed as Noun or 
Adjective. 

[For how nouns are parsed, see \ 217-223 ; adjectives, see If 285-287.] 

1. Talking is easier than acting— tcdk is easier than action 

=to talk is easier than to act 
The noun-use of the participle is here evident. 

2. The running water was cold and clear. 
The adjective-use of the participle is here evident. 

Exercise 27. 
Dispose of the Verbs in the folloioing Sentences: 
iHT Previously to the syntactical parsing, the "Teacher may have the 
scholar go through the forms of etvmological parsing according to Model 
III., p. 68. 



76 SYNTAX. 

1. Pleasantly rose next morning the sun on the village of Grand-Pre. 

2. Shell-fish cast their shell once a year. 

3. English style begins, at the earliest, only about the middle of the four- 

teenth century. 

4. The eagle and the stork on cliffs and cedar-tops their eyries build. 

5. The air gets slowly changed in inhabited rooms. 

6. In the present day, the binding of a book illustrates the power of ma- 

chinery. 

7. One morn a Peri at the gate of heaven stood disconsolate. 

8. The preparations for the trial proceeded rapidly. 

9. On either side the river lie long fields of barley and rye. 

1 0. Over the joyous feast the sudden darkness descended. 

11. The green trees whispered low and mild. 

12. In the market-place of Bruges stands the belfry, old and brown — 
Thrice consumed, and thrice rebuilded, still it watches o'er the town. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Verb. 
197. General Rule. — A Verb must be in the proper form 
required by its subject; and, in particular, it must be put in the 
Singular Number when its subject is Singular, in the Plural 
Number when its subje<}£ is Plural. 

Note. — The rule given above has usually been stated thus : " A verb 
must agree with its subject nominative in number and person." The prin- 
ciple in either form is a frame-work much too large for what it is designed 
to fit. From the paucity of inflections in the English verb, it is not easy 
to make a verb disagree with its subject. Leaving out the second person 
singular (never used in ordinary communication), it is hardly possible for a 
verb to disagree with its subject in person. And even in regard to num- 
ber, it is in but a few instances (named in the next paragraph) that a verb 
can be wrong. It is probable that the rule was made in order to cover the 
verb To Be, which has numerous changes, or inflections, to denote number 
and person. In this text-book the verb To Be is treated by itself. (See 
% 207. ) The rule is thus greatly simplified, and it is believed that the pu- 
pil will in this way gain a much more practical knowledge of the syntax of 
the verb than he is likely to gain when mystified by the abstractions of the- 
oretical " number and person." 

Inflections of the English Verb. 

i^ 3 Note tins table carefully ; it shows you the few and sole instances in 
which you can make mistakes in the Number of a Verb. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense has one change of form— s in the third person 

singular: thus, ' he loves;' but [I, you, we, 

they] love. 

Present Perfect Tense- -being formed by means of the verb -have,'pre- 
* sents one peculiarity — namely, has for the third 

person singular ; thus, ' he has loved ;' but [I, 
you, we, they] have loved. 



PKACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 77 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense Has one peculiarity of form — the s (the sign of 

the third singular present indicative) is absent 
in the subjunctive , thus, ' if he love,' not ' if he 
loves. ' 

Present Perfect being formed by the auxiliary ' have,' takes the 

subjunctive form of the third singular; thus, 
'if he have loved,' not 'if he has loved.' 

Illustrations of the General Rule. 

1. John likes good books. 

Explanation. — 'Likes' is in the proper form to accompany 'John.' 
Noun-subjects are considered as being in the third person, and ' likes' is 
the form of the verb peculiar to the third person singular, in the present 
tense. It would be wrong to say John like good books, because ' like' is 
not the form peculiar to the third person singular. 

2. Hike good books. 

Explanation. — ' Like' is in the proper form required by its subject 'I :' 
it agrees with ' I' in number and person. I likes good books would be in- 
correct, because ' likes' is the form peculiar to the third person, singular 
number. 

3. Peter saw the play of Hamlet. I saw it also. We liked 

the performance. 
Explanation. — We say that ' saw' agrees with Peter ; that ' saw' agrees 
with ' I,' and that ' liked' agrees with ' we. ' These verbs, being in the past 
tense, could not, however, disagree with their subjects, for the past tense 
has no peculiarities of form for the several numbers and persons. 

4. Iicalked to town. He walked to town. We walked to 

town. You walked to town. They icalked to town. 
Explanation. — These verbs are parsed each as " agreeing with its sub- 
ject in number and person." But how could they disagree t 

5. Columbus has earned immortal renown. They have de- 

served well of their country. 
Explanation. — ' Has earned' is in the proper form required by the sin- 
gular noun-subject ' Columbus ;' that is, the auxiliary ' has' is in the third 
person, singular number. They has deserved well would not be correct, be- 
cause ' has' is the auxiliary of the singular ; but ' they' is plural, hence the 
auxiliary should be ' have. ' 

6. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

Explanation. — ' Slay' agrees with ' he ;' that is, it is in the form prop- 
er to accompany the third person, singular number. It is not slays, because 
the verb is in the subjunctive mood, and — recollect — the third singular 
present subjunctive takes no s. 

The Principle how Violated. 
198. The principle that a verb agrees with its subject is 
seldom violated in short sentences, except by very careless 



78 SYNTAX. 

people. We sees ; The shops is not open, are mistakes of 
very ignorant persons only. But in long sentences the verb 
may not be referred to its real subject, and then violations of 
the Rule occur. Hence the following application of the Rule : 
The adjuncts of a subject have nothing to do with the num- 
ber of the subject; hence the verb must agree with its subject 
without reference to the adjuncts of the subject. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. The union of two great rivers produces the Mississippi. 
• Explanation. — Here the verb 'produces' is rightly in the singular 

number, because the subject of the verb is ' union,' which is singular. It 
matters not that the subject is followed by the phrase ' of two great rivers,' 
for that is a mere adjunct. 

2. His reputation was great, and somewhat more durable 

than that of similar poets have generally been. 
Explanation. — Here the verb have is in the wrong number. Its sub- 
ject is the pronoun ' that,' which is singular, whereas ' have' is plural. The 
cause of the mistake is that the verb ' have' is attracted into the same num- 
ber as 'poets;' but as the phrase 'of similar poets' is a mere adjunct of 
' that, ' it can have no influence on the number of the verb. 

199. Correct the following, so as to make the Verbs agree 
with their real subjects: 1. The condition of the crops show 
that the country has suffered from drouth. 2. The trend of 
the Rocky Mountains are toward the South. 

The Subject a Collective Noun. 

200. When the subject is a collective noun, the verb is singu^ 
lar or plural according as the sense conveyed is of one collect™ 
mass or of many individuals. 

Note. — A collective noun will always be singular in form ; but the num- 
ber to be attributed to, and, consequently, the number in which the verb is 
to be put, will depend on the notion — whether of unity or plurality — of the 
collective noun in a particular sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. The jury have brought in their verdict. 
Explanation. — The verb 'have' is incorrect, because the subject, the 

collective noun 'jury,' suggests the idea of the body as a whole. Hence 
it should be ' has brought in. ' In like manner, the pronoun should be ' its, ' 
not their, seeing that it represents a noun that is construed as singular. 

2. The jury has disagreed. 

Explanation. — The verb 'has' is incorrect, because the noun 'jury' as 
used here signifies the individuals of the body separately regarded. Hence 
it should be 'have disagreed. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 79 

201. Is there any violation of this rule in the following? 

1. The Church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. 

2. A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent. 

3. The public is often deceived by false appearances. 

The Subject a Relative Pronoun. 

202. When the immediate subject is a Relative Pronoun, the \j 
antecedent of the Pronoun determines the Number of the Verb. 

Note. — As the relative pronouns have no peculiar form for the plural, 
these pronouns have an attributed number in accordance with the number 
of the antecedent. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. 

Explanation. — Here the immediate subject is the relative pronoun 
' which.' This pronoun is construed as plural, because its antecedent 'stars' 
is plural ; therefore the verb takes the plural form. 

2. This is one of the most valuable books that has ap- 

peared in any language. 

Explanation. — Here the verb 'has' is in the wrong number. Its im- 
mediate antecedent is the relative pronoun ' that;' but this pronoun is con- 
sidered as plural, since its antecedent ' books' is plural ; therefore ' has ap- 
peared' should be ' have appeared. ' 

When the antecedent consists of a noun and a pronoun in apposition, the 
relative takes the number and the person of the pronoun, and the verb 
agrees with the relative in that number and person ; as, 

It is I, your friend, who [1st person singular] tell you to go. 
But if the relative clause belongs to the noun rather than to the pronoun, 
the relative is considered to be in the third person, and the verb agrees with 
it in that person ; as, 

It is I, the friend that loves you, who tell you to go. 
The first sentence = I (your friend) tell you to go. 
The second =1 (the friend that loves you) tell you to go. 

203. Are the following sentences correct? Bless them that 
curses you. 2. It is an ill wind that blow nobody good. 3. 
The strata that contains coal belong to the tertiary era. 

Singular Subjects united by ' and.' 

204. When the subject consists of two or more singular Nouns 
united by 'and/ the Verb must be Plural. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. John and James are in the field. 

Explanation. — Here the subject is ' John' and 'James,' two singular 
nouns united by and. Hence the verb ' are' is plural. 



80 SYNTAX. 

2. Mars and Jupiter has been visible this week. 

Explanation. — Here the subject is two singular nouns connected by 
'and;' so the verb should be plural. Hence 'has been' should be ''have 
been.' 

SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OP THE PRINCIPLE. 

(a) The principle applies equally if the conjunction ' and' be understood. 
Thus, ' Art, empire, earth itself to change are doomed. ' But, 

(b) If the two nouns are names for the same object, they are not united 
copulatively, but merely in an explanatory way ; hence there is no real plu- 
rality of subject, and the verb must be singular. The spectator and his- 
torian of his exploit has observed ; that is, a single person who was at once 
' spectator' and ' historian' of his exploit. (If two persons, the one specta- 
tor, the other historian, were intended, the article would be repeated, and 
then the verb would need to be plural. Thus the spectator and the histo- 
rian of his exploit have observed.) 

(c) Note that where two or more singular subjects almost synonymous In 
meaning are employed for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind of 
unity in the subject ; hence the singular verb is used ; as, the head and 
front of his offending was this ; to read and write was once an honorary 
distinction. 

(d) Sometimes 'and' is not a real conjoiner, but has the sense of the prep- 
osition with. In such cases there is no plurality of subject, and the verb 
must be singular. Example : Two and three is five. This does not mean 
'two is five,' 'three is five,' but two with three is five. The wheel and 
axle was out of repair; that is, the 'wheel together with the axle.' We 
may say A needle and a thread were given to her, but she could not thread 
the needle — meaning the needle and thread were given separately ; A nee- 
dle and thread was given to her, but she could not sew on the button — 
meaning that a threaded needle was given her. 

(e) Here is a peculiar case : ' The captain and his men were taken pris- 
oners.' Grammatically, the subject 'captain' is singular; hence the verb 
should be was taken [prisoner] ; but the sense requires the plural. The 
better way in such a case is, if we mean to bring to notice both captain and 
men, to say, The captain and his men were taken prisoners ; or, if we de- 
sire to make the captain alone prominent, The captain was taken prisoner 
with his men. 

(/) When two singular nouns are coupled by as well as, the verb is sin- 
gular, as there are in reality two propositions. 'As well as' makes merely 
an illustrative comparison, so that there is essential unity of subject, and 
hence the verb must be singular ; as, Africa as well as Gaul [after the man- 
ner of Gaul] was gradually fashioned by imitation of the capital. 

(g) When two subjects are connected by ' and,' one affirmative, the oth- 
er negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, our own heart, and 
not other men's opinion s, forms our true honor. The reason of this is that 
there are really two propositions — our own heart forms our true honor, and 
other men's opinions do not form our true honor. 

(Ji) When two or more singular subjects connected by and are preceded 
by each, every, or no, the verb is singular ; as, Every limb and feature ap- 
pears with its appropriate grace. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 81 

Two Singular Subjects joined by ' or' or l nor/ 

205. Two or more Singular Nouns distributed by 'or' or 'nor' 
must have a Singular Verb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. He or his brother has the book. 

2. Neither this nor that is the thing wanted. 

206. When one of two subjects separated by or or nor is 
in the plural, the verb should be plural. He or his servants 
were to blame. It is proper in such cases to place the plural 
nominative next to the verb. 

Exercise 28. 

Correct the false Syntax in the following Sentences: 

1. Ships and steamers goes to sea. 2. An eminent scholar and judicious 
critic have said \% 204 6JT 3. Wherein do git the dread and fear of kings 
[1 204 c]. 4. This wine-and-water are hot [f 204 d~\. 5. Sir Richard, with 
several others, were cited to the Star Chamber [^f 204 e]. 7. Franklin as 
.well as Otis were born in Massachusetts [If 204/]. 7. Our will and not 
our stars make us what we are [If 204 g]. 8. Every house-top and every 
steeple show^the flag of the republic [% 204 K\. 9. A word or an epithet 
paint a whole scene [% 205]. 10. Neither the captain nor the sailors was 
saved [If 206]. 

The Veeb 'To Be.' 

207. The general rule for the agreement of Verbs with 
their subjects in number, and all the application of that rule, v 
apply to the verb to be. But this verb has an additional*^ 
point of agreement with its subject, namely, person. 

Note. — It has been shown that the English verb is so deficient in inflec- 
tions as to make its agreement in person of no practical importance. It is 
otherwise with the verb to be. A review of its conjugation will show that 
it has numerous changes, making it truly an inflected verb, and thus re- 
quiring that fuller rule, applicable to most other languages, that the verb 
" agrees with its subject in number and m person." 

Illustrations of Agreement in Number and Person. 

1. lam studying; he is studying;' toe are studying; schol- 

ars are studying — illustrations of the general rule of 
agreement in number and person. 

2. The condition of the roads is bad — illustration of the 

principle of the subject with adjuncts [see % 198]. 
D2 



82 SYNTAX. 

3. jT 5 who am an American, am proud of my country; He, 

whom the truth makes free, is a freeman ; Ye stars, 
which are the poetry of heaven, shine above us — il- 
lustrations of the principle when the subject is a rel- 
ative pronoun — [see % 202]. 

4. The council is about to present its chairman with a 

portrait; The council are to subscribe for the por- 
trait — illustrations of agreement with a collective 
noun as subject [% 200]. 

5. John and he were students — illustration of the rule as 

applied to singular subjects joined by and [see ^[ 204]. 

6. The spectator and historian of his exploits is said to 

have observed ; The head and front of his offending 
was this ; Two and three is five ; The captain with 
his men was taken prisoner ; Jefferson, as well as 
Franklin, was a great statesman ; Our own con- 
science, and not other men's opinions, is to be our 
guide ; Every limb and every feature is clearly seen 
— illustrations of double subjects with unity of idea 
[see ^f 204, Special Applications]. 

7. Charles or Richard is to blame ; Neither Charles nor 

Richard was to blame — illustrations of singular sub- 
jects joined by or [see T 205]. 

The Verb ( to be' used with Subjects of different Number and Person. 

208. When the Verb 'To Be' has for its subjects two or more 
Pronouns of different Persons and of the Singular Number, con- 
nected by ' or' or 'nor/ it agrees in number and person with the 
first Pronoun. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. I or he am in the wrong. JSf 

2. He or I is in the wrong. " / 

3. You or he are in the wrong. 

4. He or you is in the wrong. 

209. When the Pronouns are preceded by either or neither, 
the Verb ' To Be' takes the third Person Singular. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Either he or lis in the wrong. 

2. Neither he nor lis right. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 83 

210. The same rule applies when, instead of two Pronouns, 
a Noun and a Pronoun are used ; as, 

1. Either Mary or I is in the wrong. 

2. Zor Mary am to go. 

3. You or Thomas are unfortunate. 

4. Either Jane ox lis right. 

5. Neither Hattie nor I is wrong. 

6. Neither I nor Hattie is to blame. 

The type of sentences exemplified in the preceding cases is not to be 
commended as illustrating the best usage. Such sentences are common in 
colloquial use. It is better to write, Either / am in the wrong, or he is. 
Neither John {5 right, nor am I. Is James or I to go ? Better thus, Is 
James to go, or ami? 

Two Subjects — one Affirmative, the other Negative. 

211. When the Verb 'To Be' has two subjects, one affirmative^* 
and the other negative, it agrees in Number and in Person 
with the affirmative subject. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. He, and not I, is chosen. 

2. I, and not they, am to go. 

3. Not you, but Mary, is the best scholar. 

A Peculiar Case. 

212. When a noun follows the verb to be, it is not always 
apparent what is the real subject, since the order of the sen- 
tence is sometimes inverted. The rule is to determine by the 
sense what is the real subject, and make the verb agree with it. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

His pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds of the sky. 

Explanation. — Here the real subject follows the verb. In the sen- 
tence ' The wages of sin is death, ' the verb is may agree with c death ; ' but 
it also agrees with ' wages,' which is singular, though plural in form. 

Ellipsis of the Verb. 

213. Sometimes, in poetry, the verb to be is omitted. 

Sweet the hum 
Of bees, the voice of girls, the song of birds, 
The lisp of children and their earliest words. — Byron. 

Improper Ellipsis. 

214. Be very careful not to make any ellipsis of the auxiliary \ 
verb Be when the auxiliary, if supplied, would not agree witlui^ 
its subject. /j 



84 SYNTAX. 



ILLTJSTKATION. 

A bundle of papers was produced, and such particulars as 
the following detailed. 

Explanation. — There is an ellipsis of the auxiliary before the participle 
' detailed. ' But this ellipsis is improper, because, when we come to supply 
was (expressed before ' produced'), we have ' such particulars was pro- 
duced, ' which is ungrammatical. The auxiliary were should be supplied. 

A Common Error in Participles. 

Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 

Explanation. — This sentence illustrates a common error in the use of 
the participle introducing a phrase. Sailing (a participle construed as an 
adjective) must belong to some noun ; it here belongs to the noun river. 
But it is certainly not intended to say ' the river sailing ;' the idea is we 
sailing. The sentence should be, c Sailing up the river, we may see the 
whole town.' The rule is, that when a participle introduces a phrase, that 
participle must describe the subject of the next verF, and the subject of the 
next verb must be what is intended to be described. 

215. Correct the following : Hoping that I shall soon hear 
from you, believe me yours truly. 



2. Syntax of the Noun. 
I. How to Dispose of Nouns. 

216. There are seven functions that a Noun may perform 
in a sentence. 

It may be — 

1. Subject of a Verb ; 

2. Nominative after a Neuter Verb ; 

3. Object of a Transitive Verb ; 

4. Linked by a Preposition ; 

5. In the Possessive Case ; ^\> 

6. In Apposition ; 

7. Independent. 

These are all the possible uses of the noun in a sentence. It must have 
one of these uses. The following models will show how to dispose of it 
when in any of these relations. 

Noun, Subject of a Verb. 

217. A Noun as subject of a Verb is disposed of by saying 
that — 

It is in the Nominative Case, because it is the subject of the 
Verb [naming the verb]. 



< 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 85 

Model. — As soon as morning dawned all fears were dis- 
pelled. 

Morning a noun, is the nominative to ' dawned,' since it is that of which 

the statement is made. 
Fears a noun, is the nominative to l were dispelled,' since it is that of 

which the statement is made. 

Note. — A noun, the subject of an infinitive, is construed in the objective 
case. Example : The queen perceived Columbus to be an enthusiast. 
Here c Columbus' is parsed as in the objective case, though the form, of 
course, is the same as the nominative. If a pronoun were used as the 
subject of an infinitive, the form of the pronoun would mark it as in the 
objective case. Thus, The queen perceived him to be an enthusiast. This 
construction is not, strictly speaking, English ; it is an imitation of a Latin 
idiom. Our English idiom would turn such sentences thus : c The queen 
perceived that Columbus was, 1 ' that he was, 7 etc. 

Exercise 29. 
Dispose of the Subjects in the following Sentences: 

1. Water consists of two gases. 

2. Napoleon went to Egypt with forty sail of the line. 

3. Life's but a walking shadow. 

4. The bugle's note and cannon's roar the deathlike silence broke. 

5. Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 

Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 

Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. — Milton. 

Noun, Predicate-Nominative. 
218. A noun after a neuter or a passive verb, meaning the 
same thing as the subject, is disposed of by saying that — 
It is in the Nominative Case after the Verb [naming it]. 

This nominative is often called the predicate-nominative. 

Model. — 1. Tennyson is a, poet. 

Poet — a noun, is in the nominative case (or predicate-nominative) after the 
verb 'is.' 

2. Washington was elected President in 1789. 

* President' is predicate-nominative after the passive verb * was elected. ' 

Exercise 30. 
Dispose of the Predicate-Nominatives. 

1. He was a man ; take him for all in all, I shall not look upon his like 

again. 

2. Our world is a planet. 

3. General Grant was made general-in-chief in 1864. 

4. Though a prisoner, Mary seemed still a queen. 

5. King William of Prussia became Emperor of Germany in 1871. 



86 SYNTAX. 

Noun, Object of a Transitive Verb. 
Note. — Remember that transitive verbs are incomplete, and require a 
noun or the equivalent of a noun in order to make full sense. The noun 
that is used as the complement of a transitive verb is called its object. 

219. A noun, the object of a transitive verb, is disposed of 
by saying that — 

It is the object of the verb [naming it\ and completes the 
statement. 

Model. — The muses haunt clear spring, or shady grove, or 
sunny hill. 
Spring a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' and completes the state- 
ment made by that verb. 
Grove a noun, is the object of the verb c haunt,' and completes the state- 
ment made by that verb. 
Hill a noun, is the object of the verb ' haunt,' since, etc. 

Exercise 31. 

Dispose of the Noun Subjects and Noun Objects in the 

following Sentences: 

1. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. — Gray. 

2. Beaux banish beaux, and coaches coaches drive. — Pope. 

3. The gushing flood the tartans dyed. — Scott. 

4. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. — Gray. 

Noun with a Preposition. 

220. A Noun governed by a Preposition is disposed of by 
saying that — 

It is linked by the Preposition [naming it] to such and such a 
word [naming it]. 

Model. — The man with the gray coat fell from the top of 
the wall. 

Coat a noun, is linked by the preposition with to the noun man. 

Top a noun, is linked by the preposition from to the verb Jell. 

Wall a noun, is linked by the preposition of to the noun top. 

Exercise 32. 
Dispose of the Nouns linked by Prepositions, and of the 
Noun Subjects and Noun Objects in the following Sen- 
tences : 

1. The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 

2. The army crossed the river by a bridge made of pontoons. 

3. Forth in the pleasing spring thy beauty walks. — Thomson. 

4. He went to California on account of his health. 

5. Across his brow his hand he drew. 

6. Advance the front athwart my way. 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 87 



Noun in the Possessive Case. 



221. A Noun in the Possessive Case is disposed of by say- 
ing that — 

It describes or limits the Noun [naming it]. 

Note. — This is the principle that disposes of Adjectives also. The Pos- 
sessive Case has, in fact, always the use of an adjunct. 

Model. — Seeking the bubble reputation at the cannon's 
mouth. 
Cannon's a noun possessive, limiting 'mouth.' 

Exercise 33. 

Dispose of the Possessives. 

1. Let all the ends thou aims't at be thy country's [ends], thy God's, and 

truth's. 

2. My father and mother's command was obeyed. 

3. Quench the timber's falling embers, 
Quench the red leaves in December's 

Hoary rime and chilling spray. — Whittier. 

4. So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way, 

To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's Bay. — lb. 

5. Progress, Liberty's proud teacher, 
Progress, Labor's sure reward. 

Noun in Apposition. 

Explanation. — A noun is said to be "in apposition" when it denotes 
the same person or thing as another noun or pronoun, and when both are 
in the subject or in the predicate. It is then said to be in the same case as 
the noun or pronoun w r hich it explains. Example : Thomson, the poet, 
was a contemporary of Hume, the historian. Here 'poet' explains 'Thom- 
son,' and is said to be in apposition with it. So with 'historian' and 
'Hume.' 

222. A Noun in apposition is disposed of by saying that — 
It is in apposition with the Noun or the Pronoun [naming it\ 

since it denotes the same person {or thing). 

Model.— Ali reclined, a man of war and woes. — Byron. 

Man a noun, is in apposition with the noun 'Ali,' since it denotes the 

same person. 

Exercise 34. 
Dispose of the Nouns in Apposition. 

1. 'Tis I, Hamlet the Dane. 

2. Washington, the Father of his Country, was the first President of the 

United States. 



88 SYNTAX. 

3. Crown her queen of all the year. • 

4. Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, are immortal. 

5. Tarquinius Priscus, a son of a citizen of Corinth, was elected to the va- 

cant throne. 

Noun Independent. 
Explanation. — A noun is said to be independent when it has no gram- 
matical relations with the other words in the sentence. Example : Hora- 
tius, saith the consul, as thou sayest, so let it be. Here ' Horatius' has no 
grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence, and hence is 
said to be independent. 

223. A Noun Independent is disposed of by saying that — 
It is Independent, since it has no grammatical relation to any 

other word in the sentence. 

Model. — The storm having ceased, we departed. 

Storm a noun, is independent, since it has no grammatical relation with 

any other word in the sentence. 

Exercise 34. 
Dispose of the Nouns Independent. 

1 . Mary, your lilies are in bloom. 

2. False wizard, avaunt ! 

3. The river not being fordable, we had to make a great detour. 

4. Out, out, brief candle. 

5. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Noun. 

224. The almost total absence of inflections in the English 
Noun leaves the practical Syntax of this part of speech ex- 
ceedingly simple. 

Note. — The Grammars usually admonish us that "a noun used as the 
subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case ;" but it would be 
quite impossible to violate this rule. So "a noun, the object of a verb, 
must be in the objective case." However, as there is no peculiar form for 
the objective case, no error can be committed. It is very different in in- 
flected languages. We say, The man loves me, and I love the man. In 
the first case ' man' is subject, in the second, object of the verb ; but the 
form is identical. In Latin these sentences would read Amo hominem and 
Homo me amat — different forms for the different functions of the noun. 
The simplicity in the syntax of our English noun is one of the fine points 
in our mother tongue. 

The Noun-Subject must have a Verb. 

225. When you start out with a noun designed to be the sub- 
ject of a verb, see that that noun has a verb of which it is the 
subject. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 89 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not 
signify the same thing, the former must be in the geni- 
tive case. 
Explanation. — The writer starts out with the noun 'substantives,' 
which is so placed that it can he only the subject of a verb ; but, before he 
gets through, the word another comes in as the subject of his verb must be. 
The word of at the beginning of the sentence — ' Of two substantives, ' etc. 
— would rectify the blunder. 

The Possessive Case. 
226. The only points of difficulty in the Syntax of Nou 
occur in the use of the Possessive Case. Note the following 
illustrative sentences : 

1. I have read a play of ShaJcspeare's, the great English 

dramatist. 
Explanation. — The rule in such cases is, that when nouns stand in ap- 
position (as * dramatist' and ' Shakspeare'), the possessive '5 is used with 
only one. 

2. John, William, and Mary's share was five thousand' 

dollars. 
Explanation. — The rule in such cases is, that when, in a string of nouns, 
joint possession is meant, the possessive 's is used only with the last. 

3. A portrait of my father, 
A portrait of my father's. 

Explanation. — Observe the distinction between these two expressions. 
A portrait of my father means a likeness of himself. A portrait of my fa- 
ther's means one portrait of my father's collection of portraits. This lat- 
ter employment of the possessive case is called its partitive use. 

The thing spoken of in the singular number is always understood in 
the plural number after the possessive. ' A house of my uncle's' =a house 
out of my uncle's houses. 

4. Day and night are a consequence of the earth's revolV')^' 

ing on its axis. A 

Explanation. — This sentence illustrates a striking peculiarity of En- 
glish syntax, and one that has greatly puzzled grammarians, namely, the 
possessive case associated with a participial form. The explanation is that 
in all such cases the verbal in -ing is a real Infinitive (see % 171). As an 
infinitive, it has the function of a noun, and, as such, may be preceded by a 
possessive case describing it. Thus the ' earth's revolving' is equivalent to 
the ' earth's revolution. ' The test of the noun character of a participle is 
to see if we can substitute a possessive pronoun for the possessive noun. 
Thus we can substitute its revolving for ' the earth's revolving. ' 

%* The verbal in -ing, which, as an infinitive, has thus the use of a noun, 
retains at the same time its governing power as a verb, and hence it may 
take an object after it ; as, ' disease or death were consequences of the mans 
[possessive] neglecting treatment' [object]. 



90 SYNTAX. 

Wrong Placing of Possessive Phrases. 

227. The following illustrates a common error in the plac- 
ing of possessive phrases : 

The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 

Explanation. — The possessive phrase j of the great statesman' belongs 
to death: the phrase should be near the noun it describes ; thus, 'The death 
of the great statesman was,' etc. Never put a possessive phrase in the 
predicate when the noun to which it belongs is in the subject. 

Possessive Inflection when used. 

228. The Possessive Inflection is used only when some idea 
of ownership is present, and hence is limited mainly to per- 
sons and to personified objects. When we wish to denote 
merely an adjunct or accompaniment of a noun, we use the 
phrase-form with the preposition of. Thus we may say ' The 
man's occupation,' ' Time's hoary locks,' i the President's mes- 
sage,' ' death's fatal arrow,' but not c the house's roof (the 
roof of the house), 'the street's width' (the width of the 
street). 

Possessive Phraseology how varied. 

229. Whenever the possessive phraseology is felt to. be 
awkward, we may avoid it by using the preposition of or by. 
Thus, instead of saying Alexander the Great's conquest of 
Babylon, we may say The conquest of Babylon by Alexander 
the Great. 

230. Vary the expression of this sentence: This opinion is 
Newton the astronomer's. 

Ellipsis of the described Noun. 

231. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the noun described 
by the possessive. Example: — Whose is this image and 
superscription ? They say unto him, Cwsar's [image and su- 
perscription]. 

The Verbal in -ing. 

232. When a verbal in -ing is preceded by the definite arti- 
cle, or by the Demonstrative this or that, it must be followed 
by the preposition of. But if there is no the, there must be 
no of 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. The rising of the sun was splendid. 

2. Receiving this news gave us much pleasure. 





PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 91 

Explanation. — In the former case the verbal in -ing is a true noun; 
in the latter it is an infinitive. Such phrases as the following are needless 
and ungraceful, and truly un-English : * The betraying of a trust ;' ' The 
receiving of a letter.' These verbals are not wanted, because we have the 
true nouns betrayal, receipt, etc. 

3. Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in 
the writing bad verses. 

Explanation. — The use of the, if correct, would require writing to be 
followed by of — ' the writing of bad verses.' But the is not correctly used. 
Writing is here a real infinitive, and an infinitive, being an abstract noun, 
can take no article ; hence the sentence should be ' in writing bad verses.' 

233. Correct the following: 1. Much depends on this rule 
being observed. 2. The building the house is going on. 

3. Syntax of the Pronoun. 
I. How to Dispose of Pronouns. 

234. The Pronoun has the same functions as the Noun; 
that is, it may be — 

1. Subject of a Verb. 

2. Nominative after a Neuter or Passive Verb. 

3. Object of a Transitive Verb. 

4. Governed by a Preposition. 

5. In the Possessive Case. 

6. In Apposition. 

7. Independent. 

235. The Pronoun, having the same use as the Noun, is 
parsed in the same way as the Noun. 

*HP Review How to Dispose of a Noun, If 215. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Pronoun. 

236. General Rule. — Pronouns should agree in Genders f 
and in Number with their antecedents, or with the Nouns oFpf* 
the Pronouns that they represent. 

Note.— This is the most important practical principle in the Syntax of 
Pronouns. It is also the one that is most frequently violated. " The 
greatest care ought always to be taken in using Pronouns, because, being 
small words, and in frequent use, the proper weight of them is very often 
unattended to." — Cobbett's English Grammar, 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Had the opinion of my censurers been unanimous, it 
might have overset my resolutions ; but since I find 
them at variance with each other, I can, without 
scruple, neglect them \it\ and follow my own imagi- 
nation. — Dr. Johnson. 



92 SYNTAX. 

Explanation. — Notice the pronoun them, and see if you can tell what 
noun it is meant to represent. A careful reading of the sentence will show 
that the pronoun them was designed to stand for the word ' opinion. ' It is 
the opinion that was not unanimous : hence the writer correctly says ' it 
p. e., the opinion] might have overset my resolutions.' It was this 'opin- 
ion' that he could neglect, not his 'censurers,' which he carelessly makes 
the represented noun, and hence uses ' them' instead of ' it.' 

2. When a verb governs a relative pronoun, it is placed 

after it. — Chambers's Grammar. 

Explanation. — This sentence illustrates a careless use of the pronoun. 
It is not easy to tell which it represents ' verb' and which ' pronoun. ' 

3. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in 

others, and think that their reputation obscures 
them, and that their commendable qualities do stand 
in their light ; and therefore they do what they can 
to cast a cloud over them, that the bright shining of 
their virtues may not obscure them. — Bishop Tillot- 
son. 

Explanation. — The above sentence has two subjects, and we can not 
tell from the construction to which of the two the pronouns refer. In fact, 
the sentence is a complete muddle of pronouns. 

The Rule as applied to Nouns connected by ' and.' 

237. When two or more Nouns are connected by 'and/ the 
Personal Pronoun used to represent them must be in the Plural 
Number. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery, but he 
was far from being happy in it. — Dr. Blair. 

Explanation. — As in this sentence the pronoun it was designed to 
represent the two nouns 'wit' and 'raillery,' them should have been used 
instead of it. 

238. Correct the following : Both Cato and Cicero loved his 

country. 

Nouns connected by ' or.' 

239. When two or more Singular Nouns or Pronouns are con- 
nected by ' or/ the pronoun used to represent them must be in 
the singular number. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he 
gives them away. 



PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 93 

Explanation. — As the represented nouns are singular and connected 
by or, it should be used in place of them. 

240. Covrect the following : Man is not such a machine as a 

watch or a clock, which move merely as they are 
moved. 

Collective Nouns. 

241. Collective Nouns require singular or plural Pronouns ac- 
cording to whether they convey the idea of unity or of plurality. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. — Black- 

stone. 

2. The populace, unfortunately for their own comfort, etc. 

242. Correct the following : 1. The multitude, with all its 
means of instruction. 2. The arm^dragged themselves along 
through the mud. 

Each, Every, Either, One, None, Etc. 

243. Very frequent violations of the general rule occur 
when Pronouns are used to represent the words each, every, 
either, one, or nouns preceded by one of these words. Rule : 
These words have all a singular meaning, and must be repre- 
sented by singular Pronouns. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Franklin and Lawrence were distinguished patriots : \Jj 
each served their country well. 



country 

Explanation.— In this sentence the pronoun i their' is used to repre- 
sent the pronoun ' each ; ' but * each' has a singular meaning, and hence 
should be represented by a singular pronoun — ' each served his country 
weUV 

2. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. 

Explanation. — Here the pronoun ' their' is used to represent the sin- 
gular noun 'person,' and hence should be singular — 'the architect of his 
own fortune. ' What causes the mistake is the notion of plurality in the 
word ' every ; ' but recollect that ' every' is grammatically singular. 

3. John and James have been late for a week : if either 

are absent from their seat at nine to-morrow they will 
be kept in. 

Explanation. — Here the pronouns ' their' and ' they' are used to repre- 
sent ' either,' which is singular ; hence singular pronouns and the singular 
verb should be used. ' If either is absent from his seat, he will,' etc. 



I 



94 SYNTAX. 

4. One is seldom at a loss what to do with their money. 
Explanation. — As i one' is the represented word and singular, 'his,' 

instead of ' their,' should be used. 

5. Every boy and girl must learn their lesson. 
Explanation. — This sentence presents a peculiarity. Under the verb 

(see T 204, K) we saw that two singular nouns coupled by ' and' do not take 
the plural verb when preceded by ' every.' Hence the pronoun represent- 
ing them should be singular also, and the sentence should read, ' Every boy 
and girl has learnt his lesson.' But the sentence presents a further pecul- r J 
iarity ; there are two genders to be represented. Now in English we havqi / 
no pronouns of the common gender. In such cases it is customary toj£ 
make the masculine pronoun stand for both genders. ^ 

6. Every teacher is required to make his or her report. 
Explanation. — When we wish specially to distinguish the sexes we 

use the above form ; but all difficulty may be avoided by employing the 
plural form of the noun and the pronoun — thus, 'All teachers are required 
to make their reports.' 

244. Correct the false syntax of the Pronouns: 1. Every 
one must judge of their own feelings. — Byron, 2. Had the 
doctor been contented to take my dining-tables, as any body 
in their senses would have done. — Miss Austin. 3. Not on 
outward charms should man or woman build their preten- 
sions to please. — Opie. 

Pronouns the Subjects of Verbs. 

245. A pronoun used as the subject of a verb must be in the 
nominative case. 

ILLUSTRATION. f 

This is a man whom I think deserves encouragement.^^" 
Explanation. — Transposing the parenthetical expression, I think, we 
have the sentence, 'I think this is a man whom deserves encouragement.' 
You see, of course, that this is wrong : whom is designed to be subject of 
the verb deserves, and hence it should be who deserves. 

246. Violations of this rule most frequently occur in ellip- 
tical sentences when the verb is omitted. 

ILLUSTKATIO^S. 

1. Is she as tall as me? — Shalcspeare. 

2. She suffers hourly more than me. — Swift. 

3. The nations not so blessed as thee. — Thomson. 

4. It is not for such as lis to sit with the rulers of the 

land. — Walter Scott. 

5. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. — 

Thackeray. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. * 95 

Explanation. — The above sentences, each by a famous author, all vio- 
late the rule. The blunder becomes very plain when we supply the el- 
lipsis — thus, (1) 'as tall as me am,' (2) 'more than me do,' (3) 'not so 
blessed as thee art,' (4) ' such as us are,' (5) ' than you or me are.' 

247. Correct the following ; Is James as old as me ? 2. Such 
a man as him could never be President. 

Improper Ellipsis of the Pronoun Subject. 

248. The following sentences illustrate an improper ellipsis 
of the Pronoun Subject : 

1. It is thinking makes what we read ours. 
Explanation. — The relative that should be supplied after 'thinking;' 

makes has otherwise no subject. 

2. There is and must be a Supreme Being who created^- 

and supports us. — Beattie. A 

Explanation. — This should be ' There is and there must be a Supreme 
Being who created and who supports us.' 

3. Roots are either native or foreign, and sometimes mudh 

disguised. — KerVs Grammar. 
Explanation. — Better thus, Eoots are either native or they are foreign, 
in which latter case they are sometimes much disguised. 

249. The rule in such cases is that — 

When Verbs are used in different Voices, Moods, or Tenses, 
or when they are emphatically distinguished, the Subject or 
an equivalent Pronoun must be repeated. 

The Pronoun used Kedundantly. 

250. In poetry the subject is sometimes repeated in the 
form of a pronoun used along with the noun ; as, The count 
he was left to the vulture and hound ; To be or not to be 
[phrase-subject], that [pronoun-subject] is the question. But 
this is not allowable in prose except where special emphasis 
is designed. # 

' My father he said that I must go' is incorrect. We might, however, 
say, ' A man that wears the livery of heaven to serve the devil in, he is not 
to be trusted,' because here special emphasis is desired. i 

Pronoun after the Verb To Be. 

251. A Pronoun used as the complement of the Verb 'To Be' 
must be in the same case as the subject of that Verb. 

In violation of this rule, we often hear, in the ordinary conversation of 
all classes of society, such expressions as, 'Who is it? me?' 'It was her;' 
'It is them;' 'It is us.' Indeed, some grammarians (as Dean Alford and 




96 | SYNTAX. 

Mr. Bain) defend these forms as allowable, but there seems to be no suffi- 
cient justification for these wide departures from the regular syntax of our 
language. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. It was he that secured our liberty. 

Explanation. — Here he is in the nominative case, because it, the sub- 
ject of is, is in the nominative. 

2. We knew it to be him. 

Explanation. — Here him is properly in the objective case, for the rea- 
son that it, being the subject of the infinitive to be, is in the objective casj 

3. Let him be who he might be. 
Explanation. — In a sentence like this it is very common to hear people 

say whom instead of who, as if they thought the relative was in apposition 
to him. This is not the case. The sentence is very elliptical. Fully ex- 
pressed, it would stand thus : Let him be (the man) who he might be. 
Him is objective, because the subject of the infinitive (to) be. Who is nom- 
inative, because the verb might be (of which it is the complement) has for 
its subject he, in the nominative case. 

252. Point out the violations of this rule in the following : 
1. It is not me whom you are in love with. — Addison. 2. If 
there is one character more base than another, it is him who, 
etc. — Sydney Smith. 3. It could not have been her. 4. Whom 
say ye that I am ? 

Pronoun as Object. 

253. A Pronoun used as the object of a Transitive verb must 
be in the objective case. 

Note. — This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- 
lows the verb. It is only when the object is at some distance from the 
verb, or when the sentence is elliptical, that the nominative form of the 
pronoun is liable to be used, 'He that flatters too much, do not believe,' for 
' him that flatters,' etc. Here him is the object of the verb ' believe.' 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Who do you take me to be ? 

Explanation. — Here 'who' should be whom, because the relative is 
used after ' to be,' and is in apposition with ' me,' the object of the transi- 
tive verb take. 

2. Who should I meet the other day but him. 
Explanation. — The relative is here the object of the verb 'should 

meet,' and must take the objective form. 

254. Point out the violations of this rule in the following : 

1. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

2. Let you and she advance. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 97 

The Pronoun Used in Apposition. 

255. When a Pronoun is put in apposition with a noun used 
as the object of a verb or of a preposition, the pronoun must be 
in the objective case. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Peter's sister married John Brown — him that I told 

you about. 

2. Mary bought a bonnet from the milliner — her that 

keeps a shop in Montgomery Street. 

Note. — Sentences like the preceding are used colloquially. The better 
form is to use the relative pronoun instead of the personal ; as, John Brown 
whom I told you about ; The milliner who keeps, etc. 

Pronouns. Object of Prepositions. 

256. A pronoun linked by a preposition must be in the ob- 
jective case. 

Note. — This rule is seldom violated when the pronoun immediately fol- 
lows the preposition. Nobody would say I gave it to he; but people read- 
ily commit such errors as Who did you get that hook, from ? In the latter 
sentence, the distance of the pronoun from the governing preposition is the 
occasion of the blunder. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Who did you speak to? 

This should be 'Whom did you speak to? 1 

2. No one but he [him] should be about the king. — ShaJc- 

spectre. 

257. Correct the following : 1. Between you and I, all is not 
gold that glitters. 2. Who servest thou under ? — Shakspeare. 

The Pronoun ' It.' 

258. The double use of the pronoun it— -its ordinary use 
and its idiomatic use in introducing a sentence [see ^ 48] is 
a frequent cause of ambiguity. 

Note. — Cobbett, in his Grammar, says "the word it is the greatest 
troubler that I know of in language. It is so small, and so convenient, 
that few are careful enough in using it. Never put an it on paper without 
thinking well what you are about." 

ILLUSTEATIONS. 

1. I am going to mention the matter. It is right that it 
should be mentioned. 
E 



\ 




98 * SYNTAX. 

Explanation. — The first it here introduces the sentence (idiomatic 
use) ; the second refers to ' the matter, ' and some confusion results from 
the double reference. 

2. It is a sign of great prudence to be willing to receive 
instruction ; the most intelligent persons sometimes 
stand in need of it. 

Explanation. — This sentence would be better thus — using a noun in 
place of the first ' it : ' ' Willingness to receive instruction is a sign of great 
prudence ; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in need of it.' 

Each Other and One Another. , 

259. Of these reciprocal pronouns, the former is used when 
we are speaking of two persons; the latter when we speak ^ef \ 
more than two. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Righteousness and peace have kissed each other. 

2. If God so loved us, we ought to love one another. 

260. Correct the following : 1. As Time devours his children, 
so they endeavor to devour each other. — Bacon. 2. Did we 

\ (mankind) but love each other, it would be something. — Gold- 
smith. 

Politeness in Pronouns. . 

261. When you use singular pronouns of different persons, \ I 
put he or she before _/, and you before I, or he, or she ; o%--Vr 
He and I will go. You and he will go. My cousin andZ \ 
will go. You or James will go. 

262. With the plural pronouns, we has the first place, you^ 
the second, and they the third ; as, we and they start to-mor-^T 
row. 

Explanation. — The reason of the difference in the position of the sin- 
gular and of the plural pronouns is this : In the singular number, the speak- 
er (/) puts himself after the person spoken to and the person spoken of, as 
a matter of politeness. But in the plural number, for the same reason, he 
puts those who are most intimately associated with him in the first place 
(unavoidably including himself and making ' we ? ), then the persons spoken 
to, and then those spoken of. 

General Rule for Relatives. 

263. The Relative Pronouns are who, which, and that. They 
should be placed as near as possible to their antecedents, and 
there should be no ambiguity as to what their antecedents are. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 99 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The soldier who disobeyed his officer was punished for 
the offense. 

Explanation. — The antecedent of 'who' is 'soldier,' and the pronoun 
is correctly placed next to that antecedent ; but the sentence would be in- 
elegant if we should say, ' The soldier was punished for the offense, who 
disobeyed his officer. ' 

Position of Relatives. 

264. In ordinary cases, the first noun that precedes the rel- 
ative should be its antecedent. But there are two kinds of 
sentences that do not admit of this construction. 

265. The first type is represented by the following; 
Solomon, the soil of David, who built the Temple. 
Explanation. — The noun immediately preceding the relative ' who' is 

David; but the real antecedent is Solomon, not David. The principle in 
such cases is, that when a noun has another noun in apposition with it, theV 
relatives * who' and ' which' refer to the principal noun and not to the ex- A 
planatory noun. 

Now, if we wish to make a reference to the explanatory word, the pro- 
noun 'that,' and not 'who' or 'which,' should be used; as, Solomon, the 
son of David that slew Goliath, built the Temple. In such instances the 
noun before ' that' takes no comma. 

266. The second type of sentence is represented by the fol- 
lowing : 

The Indians constructed huts covered with the skins of 
wild animals, which formed their rude habitations. 

Explanation. — The noun immediately preceding the relative which is 
'animals;' but the 'real antecedent is huts, not 'animals.' The principle 
in such cases is, that when a noun is followed by adjunct nouns, the relative 
who or which relates to the principal noun and not to the adjunct nouns. 
In such cases, do not separate ' that' from its antecedent by a comma. 

If we wish to make the relative refer to the adjunct nouns, we must use 
that instead of who or which. Thus we might say, ' The Indians construct- 
ed huts covered with the skins of wild animals that they killed in the 
chase. ' 

Use of Relatives. 

267. Who relates to persons only; which relates to the 
lower animals and to things without life. The relative that 
may be substituted for either who or which in certain con- 
structions explained in the following paragraphs. 

268. The relative that must be used to introduce clauses in 
tended to restrict the meaning of the noun immediately preced- 
ing the relative. 



3d-/\ 



100 SYNTAX. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. All words which are the signs of complex ideas furnish 

matter of mistake. — Murray } s Grammar. 

Explanation. — It .is not intended in this sentence to say all words 
1 furnish matter of mistake,' but only such words as are ' signs of complex 
ideas.' The clause, ' which are signs of complex ideas,' restricts or limits 
the meaning of ' all words,' and hence the relative that should.be used. 

2. Words, which are signs of ideas, may be divided into 

nine Parts of Speech. 

Explanation. — Compare this with the first sentence. You will see 
that in the second sentence the relative is not restrictive, but explanatory. 
The sentence means ' all words {and these are signs of ideas) may be divi- 
ded, ' etc. The sentence is therefore correct. 

269. Hence the rule : Introduce restrictive clauses by 'that/ 
explanatory clauses by 'who' or ' which.' 

1. * A spirit more amiable, but less vigorous than Luther's, 

would have shrunk back from the dangers that he 
braved and surmounted.' 

Explanation. — The relative 'that' is correctly used to introduce the 
clause 'he braved and surmounted,' because it is not dangers in general 
that are spoken of, but the particular dangers * that he braved and sur- 
mounted. ' 

2. Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our 

desire of living. — Goldsmith. 

Explanation. — Here that is incorrectly used instead of which: the 
clause ' which lessens the enjoyment of life' is not restrictive, but is explan- 
atory ; hence ' age, which lessens, ' etc. 

Particular Applications of the Rule. 

270. The following sentences are particular exemplifica- 
tions of the general principle stated above : 

(1.) This is the best book that I know of — clause restrictive of superlative 

degree. 
(2.) This is the same book that I bought — restrictive clause following the 

adjective same. 
(3.) All that he has ; Any man that says so ; Some people that were there 

— clauses restrictive of the demonstratives all, any, some. 

1 That' having mixed antecedents. 

271. The relative that is used when the Pronoun has two 
antecedents, one denoting^6rso^s,the other animals or things ; 
as, The man and the dog that we saw. The reason of this is 
that neither who nor ivhich could properly be used. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 101 

* Which' having a Collective Noun for its antecedents. 
.272. Which, and not who, is used when the antecedent is 
collective noun expressing unity of idea ; as, The party which 
he entertained yesterday was very numerous. 

* Whose/ 
273. Whose, properly the Possessive of who, is often used, 
especially in poetry, as the possessive of which, the latter 
having no possessive of its own. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

That undiscovered country 
From whose bourne no traveler returns. — Shakspeare. 
The poor banished insects whose intent, 
Though they did ill, was innocent. — Shelley. 

Mixing Relatives. 
274. When you have used which to introduce one relative 
clause, be careful not to use that to introduce another clause 
of the same kind in the same sentence. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

It is remarkable that Holland, against which the war was 
undertaken, and that, in the very beginning, was re- 
duced to the brink of destruction^ lost nothing. 
Explanation. — Here the relative which in the first clause should not 
have been changed into that in the second clause. 

Which and That. 

275. On account of euphony, that, whenever it can be used, 
is preferable to which. 

That with Prepositions. 

276. The relative that can not be preceded by its govern- 
ing preposition ; that preposition must be thrown to the end 
of the clause ; as, The steam-boat that I went up the river in 
was sunk. 

Whom and Which with Prepositions, 

277. The Prepositions governing whom and which may 
also be thrown to the end of the clause, but modern usage 
prefers placing them immediately before the relatives. 

Illustration. — Thus it is deemed more elegant to say i The steamer in 
which I went up the river' than ' The steamer which I went up the river in. 1 




102 SYNTAX. 

An Idiomatic Construction. 

278. In many cases a much more vigorous and effective 
statement is made by introducing a clause by that and fol- 
lowing it by its governing preposition, than by introducing 
it by which or whom, preceded by its governing preposition. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. He is the stranger of whom you told me=He is the 

stranger that you told me of. 

2. The musquito is good for nothing that I know of is 

much less pompous than The musquito is good for 
nothing of which I know. 

3. There are many words which are adjectives lohich 

have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns 
to which they are put. — Cobbetfs Grammar. 

This sentence would read better thus : There are many words that are 
adjectives which have nothing to do with the qualities of the nouns that 
.they are put to. 

279. Change the turn of expression in the following: 1. The 
subject, of which I had occasion to speak, is a most important 
one. 2. He sold me the house of which you have heard. 3. 
It is the strangest story of which I ever heard. 4. There was 
nothing upon which a beetle could have lunched. 

4 As'— a Relative. 

280. The word as is used as a relative when the anteced- 
ent is such, some, and so much. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. I wish all men in the world did heartily believe so much 

of thi§ as is true. — Jeremy Taylor. 

2. Avoid such companions as those are. 

3. We are such stuff as dreams are made of. — Shakspeare. 
Here as is a relative governed by the preposition of at the end of the 

clause. 

4. He is, as I have said, a great lover of books. 

Explanation. — Here as is the object of 'said;' it represents the state- 
ment, ' He is a great lover of books.' The sentence is equivalent to this : 
He is a great lover of books, and I have said this before. 



Ellipsis of the Relative. Nj 

ed^JV. 



281. In conversational style the relatives are often omittec 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. 103 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. The family I lived with has removed. Here the relative that is under- 

stood. 

2. I have sent you every thing [that] you ordered. 

3. He can not tell all [that] he knows. 

4. I have no money [that is] worth talking about. 

5. Men must reap the things [that] they sow. — Shelley. 

6. There is a willow [that] grows askant the bank. — Shakspeare. 

7. I may do that which I shall be sorry for. — Shakspeare. 

8. I am monarch of all [that] I survey. — Coivper. 

9. In this 'tis God [who] directs, in that 'tis man. — Pope. 
10. [He] who steals my purse, steals trash. — Shakspeare. 

Misused Relatives. 

282. The following sentences illustrate two incorrect uses 
of the relatives. 

1. Be diligent; without ichich you can never succeed. 
Explanation. — In this sentence the only antecedent that the relative 

which can refer to is the adjective ' diligent ; ' but from its very nature a 
relative can represent only a noun, or some expression equivalent to a noun. 
The way of dealing with this kind of sentence is to use, in place of the 
relative, an abstract noun expressing the quality implied in the adjective. 
Thus the adjective ' diligent' implies the noun l diligence. ' The sentence 
corrected stands thus : Be diligent ; for without diligence you can not suc- 
ceed. 

2. And do you now strew flowers in his way, 
That comes in triumph over Pompey's blood? 

Shakspeare. 

Explanation. — Here 'that' has for its antecedent the possessive pro- 
noun his ; but ' his' is in reality an adjective, and is a mere adjunct of the 
noun 'way.' Hence it can not be made the antecedent; of the relative that. 

The mode of dealing with this case is to change the adjective {or posses- 
sive) pronoun into a real pronoun ; thus, ' flowers in the way of him,' etc. 

Important General Caution. 

283. When in a sentence there is the slightest ambiguityor 
obscurity in the reference of a pronoun to its noun (whether o; 
the relative to its antecedent, or of the personal pronoun to its 
represented noun), do not hesitate to repeat the noun itself in 
place of using a pronoun. 

Note. — The best modern writers pay no attention to the old maxim 
against repeating a word. Every thing must give way to perspicuity. 

284. The following sentence exemplifies the principle stated 
in the general caution : 

He [Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher [Aris- 
totle] in terms the most polite and flattering, begging 




104 . SYNTAX. 

of him [Aristotle] to undertake his [Alexander's] edu- 
cation , and to bestow upon him [Alexander] those use- 
ful lessons which his [Philip's] numerous avocations 
would not allow him [Philip] to bestow. — Goldsmith. 
Explanation. — This sentence may be corrected thus : 'Philip wrote 
to Aristotle in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of that distin- 
guished philosopher to undertake A lexander 's education, and to bestow upon 
his son those useful lessons that his own numerous avocations would not 
allow him to bestow.' 

4. Syntax of Adjectives. 
I. How to Paese Adjectives. 

285. There are but two uses of the Adjective: 

1. It may describe or limit a noun to which it belongs. \/ 

2. It may be predicate adjective after a neuter verb, and \ 

in this case it describes or limits the subject of tfie \ 
verb. 

Adjective with a Noun. 

286. An Adjective belonging to a noun is parsed by say- 
ing- 
It describes (or limits) the Noun [naming it]. 

Model. — O tenderly the haughty day 
Fills his blue urn with fire. 

Haughty an adjective, describes the noun day. 

Blue an adjective, describes the noun urn. 

Predicate Adjectives. 

287. A Predicate Adjective is disposed of by saying — 

It is Predicate Adjective after the Verb [naming it\, and 
describes the Subject [?iaming it]. 
Model. — Oak is tough. 

'Tough' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'is,' and describes 
'oak.' 

The rose smells sweet. 

'Sweet' is predicate adjective after the neuter verb 'smells,' and de- 
scribes ' rose. ' 

Exercise 35. 
Dispose of the Adjectives. 

1. Around the fire one wintry night 
The farmer's rosy children sat. 

2. The stately homes of England, 
How beautiful they stand. 



t\ 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 105 

3. These forms are very elegant. 

4. Were never folks so glad. * 

5. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, comes dancing from the 

East. 

6. Cloves smell aromatic. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Adjective. 
The Degrees. 

288. The Comparative Degree is to be used in reference only 
to two objects. The Superlative Degree is to be used only, 
when comparing more than two objects. 

Examples. — He is the stronger of the two — not the strong- 
est. He is the strongest of the three — not the stronger of the 
three. 

289. When a person or a thing is compared with others be- 
longing to the same class, the Adjective in the Comparative 
Degree must be followed by some phrase that will exclude the 
thing compared; such as/ than any other/ 'than all others.' 

ILLUSTRATION. \L^ 

Bismarck is greater than any German statesman. x<y 

Example. — This would be incorrect, because, as Bismarck is himself a 
German statesman, the sentence would affirm that he is greater than him- 
self. It should read, 

1 Bismarck is greater than any other [or than all other] German 

statesmen. ' 

The phrase than any other excludes Bismarck from the class with which 
he is compared. We can properly say, Bismarck is greater than any 
Chinese statesman, because Bismarck, being a German, does not belong to 
the class of Chinese statesmen. 

290. When one person or thing is compared with all others 
of the same class, the adjective in the superlative degree must 
be used. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

'Bismarck is the greatest of German statesmen, 5 or 'Bis- 
marck is the greatest German statesman.' 

291. Why is it incorrect to speak of Paul Pry as c the most 
inquisitive of his contemporaries ?' Why is Milton correct in 
calling Eve fairest of her daughters? 

292. In speaking of two sets of objects, ' the two first' 
means the first of each series. In speaking of one set of ob 

E 3 




106 SYNTAX. 

jects, 'the first two' denotes the first and second of the same. 
Hence such errors as the following should be avoided : ' The 
clergyman read the two first stanzas of the hymn.' 

Special Adjectives. 
This and That. The demonstrative adjectives 'this' and 
c that' must be used only with singular nouns ; ' these' and 
' those' with plural nouns. 

Note. — Never use the personal pronoun them for the adjective those; 
that is, never say 'them books' for 'those books.' 

Either and Neither. ' Either' and c neither' properly apply 
to one of two objects — not more than two. Would it be cor- 
rect to say ' John, James, and Henry are faithful boys ; either 
lad will carry the message?' 

Such. The adjective 6 such' is often improperly used for the 
adverb c so.' * She is such an extravagant woman' should be 
' she was so extravagant a woman.' 

Like. The adjective like is sometimes improperly used for 
as. Victory must end in possession like toil in sleep.— Glad- 
stone. This should be, ' Victory must end in possession, as 
(does) toil in sleep.' 

Special Prepositions. 

293. Many adjectives require to be followed by a certain 
preposition ; as, ' different from] c agreeable to] ' illustrative 
of J i preferable to? 

Use of the Articles. 

294. In the use of the articles there are several important 
points illustrated by the following examples : 

1. We saw a red, white, and blue flag. 

Explanation. — This means, we saw one flag having the three colors 
red, white, and blue. In such cases the rule is, when several adjectives 
are used to limit a noun representing only one object, the article is used 
before only the first adjective. 

2. We saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. 
Explanation. — This means that we saw three different flags. In such 

cases the rule is, when the adjectives apply to different objects, repeat the 
article before every adjective. 

3. It is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an 

interrogative and exclamatory sentence.*— Murray's 
Grammar. 



7 beMin- 



PEACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 107 

Explanation. — The great grammarian should have written 'an inter- 
rogative and an exclamatory sentence,' because two kinds of sentences are 
meant. 

4. There is about the whole book a vehement, contentious, 

replying manner. — Macaiday. 
Explanation. — This sentence is correct. It is here not necessary to 
repeat the a, because it is one manner that is spoken of — a manner vehe- 
ment, contentious, and replying. 

5. Both a noun and pronoun may be the subject of a. verb. 
Either a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb. 

Explanation. — These sentences are incorrect. The article should be 
inserted in each instance before the second of the two nouns joined in con- 
struction : both a noun and a pronoun ; either a noun or a pronoun. The 
principle in such cases is, that when there is a close connection between 
two nouns, indicated by the correlatives either — or, neither — nor, both — 
and, the article must be repeated. The same principle applies when the 
introducing correlative both, either, neither, is understood. 

6. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the car 
Explanation. — This sentence is incorrect. The article a may 

derstood before the second noun, woman, but when we come to supply it 
before the third (a infant) it is not in the proper form. The principle is, 
that in a string of nouns, the article a need not be repeated after the 
first ; but if, in a succession of nouns, one noun requires a and another an, 
no ellipsis is allowed. 

f 7. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun 
or pronoun. — Browrts Grammar. 

Explanation. — This comes under the condemnation of the principle in 
6. Supplying the ellipsis, we have 'an adjective and an participle.' It 
should be £ an adjective or a participle. ' A simple way of turning such 
sentences is to use the plural form of the nouns, and to employ and in place 
of or. Thus, 'Adjectives an d participles must belong to some noun or to 
some pronoun. ' 

8. The variation or deviation of the compass was 
served by Columbus. 

Explanation. — This sentence seems to violate the principle stated in 6, 
but it is strictly correct. ' Deviation' is used to explain ' variation,' and is 
synonymous with it, and hence it is not necessary to repeat the article. 
When the conjunction or connects two nouns, the second of which is only 
explanatory of the first, the article must not be repeated. 

Note. — Mr. Moon (Bad English, p. 31) takes Lindley Murray to task 
for using the expression 'an oration or discourse.' Moon's objection is 
that if the ellipsis were supplied the expression would read 'An oration or 
[an] discourse.' But there is really no ellipsis to be supplied, since, in ac- 
cordance with the above principle, the article is not to be repeated, the sec- 
ond noun being explanatory of the first. 

isl° When two nouns are thus connected in an explanatory way, be care- 
ful to put a comma after the first. 



noun or to 
first O^tT 



108 SYNTAX. 

9. He is a better statesman than soldier. 

Explanation. — In sentences like this — sentences in which the two 
nouns denote the same person, the article is not repeated before the noun 
following than or as. Repeating the article before soldier will entirely 
change the meaning of the sentence. ' A lawyer may be as good a man 
as a clergyman.' Here the article is repeated because the comparison is 
made between two different persons. 

Exercise 36. 
Correct the Mistakes in the use of the Article. 

1. The importance of obtaining in early life a clear, distinct, and ( ) ac- 

curate knowledge. — Murray's Grammar. 

2. The oral or ( ) written forms of a language. — Marsh. 

3. An adjective in the comparative or ( ) superlative degree must pre- 

cede an adjective modified by more or most. — Quackenbos s Gram- 
mar. 

4. The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or ( ) emphatic 

pause of variable length. — Browns Institutes. 

5. No figures will render a cold or ( ) empty composition interesting. — 

Blair. 

6. When an adverb qualifies an adjective (an ? ) participle, or infinitive, it 

is generally placed before it. 

7. The object of a transitive verb is a noun or a pronoun which denotes 

the person or thing that the agent or doer acts upon or controls. — 
Weld's Grammar. 

8. A noun or ( ) pronoun, used as the predicate of a proposition, is in 

the nominative case. — Harvey's Grammar. 

9. Specifying adjectives should be so used as clearly to signify the real in- 

tention of the speaker or ( ) writer. — Clark's Grammar. 

10. An adjective or [an ?] participle qualifies the substantive to which it 

belongs. — Bullion's Grammar. 

11. And since it is not always easy to make a new and [a?] acceptable 

proper name, etc. — KerVs Grammar. 

12. The liberty of capitalizing is carried to a great and [a f] almost indefi- 

nite extent. — Kerfs Grammar. 

5. Syntax of the Adverb. 
I. How to Parse Adverbs. 

295. The Adverb has but one function in a sentence — it de- 
scribes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 

296. Hence an adverb is disposed of by saying — 

It describes the Verb, Adjective, or Adverb {naming it]. 

Model. — The very fairest flowers usually wither most 
quickly. 
Very an adverb, describes the adjective fairest. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 109 

Usually an adverb, describes the verb wither. 

Most an adverb, describes the adverb quickly. 

Note. — Sometimes an adverb seems to be independent, but there is gen- 
erally an ellipsis, which, if supplied, will show some word that the adverb 
may modify. Example : ' There is none that is righteous. No, [there is] 
not one.' 'Do you like poetry ?' [I like it\ Very much. 

Exercise 37. 
Dispose of the following Adverbs : 

1. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

2. And now a bubble bursts, and now a world. 

3. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 

4. The enemy was completely in my power. 

5. Nothing is too gross or too refined, too cruel or too trifling, to be prac- 

ticed. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Adverb. 

297. Adverbs and adverbial phrases should be so placed 
with reference to the words they are intended to modify as 
to bring out the meaning clearly and to round the sentence 
agreeably. Hence the following — 

298. General Rule of Position. — An Adverb should be 
placed in close proximity to the word or the words that it mod- 
ifies. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

®° The proper placing of adverbs is a matter of nice taste and of keen 
judgment. The art will best be learnt, not by studying rules that are sub- 
ject to numberless exceptions, but by dealing with actual examples. 

1. We can not deprive them of merit wholly. 
Explanation. — The adverb * wholly' is inelegantly placed. It is meant 

to relate to the verb ' deprive, ' and the intervention of the words * them of 
merit' between the adverb and the verb is very clumsy. It should be, We 
can not wholly deprive them of merit. 

2. I hope not much to tire those I shall not happen to 

please. — Doctcyr Johnson. 
Explanation. — Doctor Johnson did not mean to say that he did not 
much hope to tire, but that he hoped not to tire much. The sentence should 
be turned in this manner : ' I hope I shall not much tire those whom I 
shall [or may] not happen to please. ' 

3. This mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave 

style. — Murray } s Gramm ar. 
Explanation. — As the comparison is not intended to be between suiting 
and not suiting, but between suiting one kind of style (namely, ' a familiar') 
in preference to another, the adverb of comparison should be placed, not 



110 SYNTAX. 

before the verb ' suit,' which it is not meant to qualify, but before the ad- 
jective 'familiar,' to which it is intended to relate. Making this altera- 
tion, the sentence becomes, ' This mode of expression suits rather familiar 
than grave style.' But the sentence is still faulty. A particular kind of 
style, and not style in general, is spoken of; hence the indefinite article 
should be used. Fully corrected, the sentence reads, ' This mode of ex- 
pression suits rather a familiar than a grave style.' 

4. The colon may be properly applied in the following 

cases. — Murray "s Grammar. 
Explanation. — The writer did not mean that the colon may be ap- 
plied in a proper manner, but that it is proper to apply the colon ; hence it 
should be, ' may properly be applied,' etc. 

5. It is a frequent and capital error in the writings even 

of some distinguished authors. — Murray *s Grammar. 

Explanation. — The position of ' even' confuses the sense by suggesting 

a qualification of ' writings.' 'Even' should be carried to the other side 

of the preposition ; the sentence will then read thus : ' in the writings of 

even some distinguished authors.' 

6. A master-mind was equally wanting in the cabinet an 

in the field. 

Explanation. — This should be, 'Was wanting equally in the cabinet/ 
etc. Take notice that in this example, as in Illustration 3, the adverb has 
a mixed reference. ' Equally' modifies wanting, but it has reference also 
to the phrase 'in the cabinet and in the field.' The principle in such cases 
is, that the adverb should be placed between the two words or expres- 
sions to which it has reference. 

7. I have been disappointed greatly at your conduct. 
Explanation. — You see that the adverb greatly is very clumsily placed* 

The sentence should run thus : ' I have been greatly disappointed, ' etc. The 
principle in such cases is, that in compound tenses adverbs should be^ln- 
serted between the auxiliary and the participle. 

8. He used to often come. 
I wished to really know. 

Explanation. — With the infinitive simple tense, the adverb must never 
separate the sign to from the verb ; it must either precede or it must fol- 
low the whole infinitive form. Thus, ' He used often to come,' or ' to come 
often.'' ' I wished really to know, ' or ' to know really. ' With the infinitive 
compound tenses, of course, the same rule prevails as in other compound 
tenses. We say, ' It is believed to have often happened ;' ' He is thought 
to be well informed on that subject.' In these examples the preposition to 
is not severed from its infinitive. 

299. The varieties of position and of reference in the ad- 
verb are seen in the following examples : 

1. Sometimes she sings. ... (at other times she reads). 

2. She sometimes sings. ... (at other times he sings). 

3. She sings sometimes. . . .(but not frequently). 



€ 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. HI 

That Troublesome 'Only/ 

300. The most troublesome of all our English adverbs is 
the word c only.' 

" A blunder of which the instances are innumerable is the misplacing 
of the word 'only.' Indeed, this is so common, so absolutely universal, 
one may almost say, that ' only' can not be found in its proper place in any 
book within the whole range of English literature." — Gould's Good En- 
glish, p. 100. 

301. According to the position of ' only? the very same 
word may be made to express several very different mean- 
ings. The following examples will illustrate this : 

1. 'Only he mourned for his brother.' Only here expresses an antithet- 

ical relation equivalent to 'but.' He was generally a cold-hearted 
man, only (but, as an exception to his general character) he mourned 
for his brother. 

2. 'He-only (alone) mourned for his brother.' No one else mourned for 

him. 

3. ' He ow/y-mourned for his brother.' He did nothing else. 

4. ; He mourned only for his brother.' And for no other reason. 

5. ' He mourned for his only brother.' His single brother ; only, an adjec- 

tive. 

6. * He mourned for his brother only' (alone) — and for no one else. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. A term which only implies the idea of persons. 

Explanation. — The force of exclusion possessed by the 'only' is not 
meant to apply to the word ' implies,' but to the word ' persons.' It should 
be ' which implies the idea of persons only. ' 

2. I can only regard them as Scotticisms. — Dean Alford. 

Explanation. — The force of exclusion in the 'only' is not meant to 
apply to the verb 'regard,' but to the noun 'Scotticisms.' The sentence 
should be, 'I can regard thetn only as Scotticisms.' 

3. When the article stands only before the first of two or 

more connected nouns. — KerVs Grammar. 
Explanation. — This should be, ' When the article stands before only 
the first, ' etc. 

4. The negroes are to appear at church only in boots. 

Explanation. — This means that when the negroes go to church they 
are to have no clothing but boots. 

The negroes are to appear only at church in boots. 

This might mean that they are not to appear any where but at church, 
whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to 
connect ' in boots' with its verb ' appear, ' and make ' only' qualify ' at 
church, ' and no more. Thus, ' The negroes are to appear in boots only at 
church. ' 



112 SYNTAX. 

'Not Only.' 

302. The same difficulty is met with in the use of ' not 
only.' The following sentences will serve as illustrations : 

1. By greatness I not only mean the bulk of any single 

object, but the largeness of the whole view. 
This should read, 'By greatness I mean not only the bulk,' etc. 

2. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of na- 

ture, but for his moral wisdom.— i?/?/^c?. 

This sentence should read, ' Thales was famous not only for his knowl- 
edge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom.' 

Alone. 

303. Alone, when used adverbially, should be placed imme- 
diately after the verb that it modifies. As, The teacher was 
sitting alone in the school-room. 

Explanation. — In this sentence the meaning is, 'The teacher was sit- 
ting by himself m the school-room.' If we said ' the teacher alone was sit- 
ting in the school-room,' we should convey the idea that nobody else was 
sitting in the school-room. Here ' alone' is an adjective limiting ' teacher.' 
It would be better to say ' only the teacher,' etc. 

Some misused Adverbs. 

304. Where. . . .This Relative Adverb must not be used in 
introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal place. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Franklin lived in Philadelphia, where the Declaration 

of Independence was .signed. 

Explanation. — This is correct ; but we can not properly say, ' The 
Americans addressed the king in a petition where they asked for the lib- 
erties of British subjects.' Here 'in a petition' does not denote literal 
place, but merely place figuratively, and in all such cases the relative phras< 
' in which'' must be used. 

2. The only sentence which I can call to mind where the 

words £ so — as' are proper when speaking affirmative- 
ly, are those in which the last of the said words pre- 
cedes a verb in the Infinitive Mood.— Moorfs Bad 
English,^. 139. 
Mr. Moon, though a discriminating critic, is guilty of ' bad English' in 
this sentence. Any scholar can see that the reference made by the relative 
adverb where is to the noun ' sentence,' and, therefore, that the clause should 
be introduced by in which. Thus 'The only sentences which [better that] 
I can call to mind in which the words,' etc. 

305. How This Relative Adverb must not be used in 




PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 113 

introducing clauses unless the reference is to literal manner. 
Hence it can relate only to a verb, and can not relate to a 
noun. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

I do not know how it may be done. 

Explanation. — This is correct; but we can not properly say, I know 
of no rule how it may be done. In all such cases, which, with its appro- 
priate preposition, must be used, thus : I know of no rule by which it may 
be done. 

There is another misuse of how illustrated by the, following sentence : He 
said how he intended to buy a horse. Here it is plain that the proper con- 
nective is the conjunction that. ' How that' and ' as how' are often wrong- 
ly used instead of that. 

306. When This Adverb can not refer to a specific 

noun ; it relates only to phrases, to clauses, or to statements. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The time is approaching [statement] when we shall be free. 

Explanation. — This is correct ; but we can not properly say ' The hour 
when we shall be free is approaching, ' because in the latter form the refer- 
ence is to the specific noun 'hour.' In all such cases, which, with its ap- 
propriate preposition, must be used. 

307. Whence— hence— thence. The preposition 'from' is fre- 
quently used before these adverbs, but this use is redundant, 
as direction from is implied in the adverbs themselves: 
whence being equal to from where ; hence —from here ; thence 
—from there. • 

308. So A common misuse of this adverb is illus- 
trated by the following sentence : I will answer his letter so 
soon as I receive it. 

Explanation. — The proper use of so is to introduce a comparison of 
inequality. We say 'John is not so brave as James.' To introduce a 
comparison of equality, we use as. Thus, John is as strong as James. 
The sentence above should read, I will answer his letter as soon as I re- 
ceive it. 

'The Rose smells sweet.' 

309. In sentences like the above, it is sometimes difficult to 
tell whether to use an adjective or an adverb. The principle 
is this : Neuter verbs can not be limited by adverbs; any qual- 
ifier immediately following the verb must belong to the sub- 
ject, and consequently must be an adjective. In the sentence 
'The rose smells sweet,' sweet denotes the quality of the rose. 
The sentence is equal to ' the rose is sweet.' 



114 SYNTAX. 

Explanation. — We say, 'Mary looks cold' [she is cold], because what 
we wish is, not to mark the manner of looking, but to denote a quality of 
Mary. If we change the neuter verb into a transitive verb by the addition 
of a preposition, and say, 'Mary looks on John coldly,' the expression is 
correct, because in this instance we wish to denote the manner of her looh- 
ing-on, and not a quality of Mary. 

310. Would you say i the velvet feels smooth P — or feels — 
smoothly ? 

Would you say 'gutturals sound — harshly T or sound — 
harsh? 

Would you say c the dog smells — disagreeably T or c smells 
— disagreeable f 

Would you say 'she looks finely T or 'looks— -fine?* 

Double Negatives. 

311. In English, two negatives are equal to an affirmative. 
Hence you should be careful, when you mean negation, not to 
introduce two negative adverbs. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. I have not done nothing. 

This means 'I have done something. 1 If you mean a negative, say 'I 
have done nothing,' or 4 I have not done any thing.' 

2. He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two 

days. 
Explanation. — The negative in nor (=not or), together with the word 
no before water, makes a double negative. Correct thus : He has eaten no 
bread and he has drunk no water ; or, He has neither eaten any bread nor 
has he drunk any water, etc. 

312. What does c I have not had no dinner' mean ? 

313. But double Negatives are elegantly used to express 
an affirmative in an indirect way. In place of saying, I am 
somewhat acquainted with his virtues, the sentence might 
be turned thus : I am not unacquainted with his virtues. 

The principal negative prefixes are un, dis, and in (with its variant forms 
il, ig, im, ir, etc). 

Distribution of Adverbs. 

314. When a sentence contains a number of adverbs and 
of adverbial phrases, they should be appropriately distributed 
in the sentence. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Cromwell called a council of his chief officers secretly, at 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 115 

Windsor, at the suggestion of Ireton, to deliberate con- 
cerning the settlement of the nation. 
Explanation. — Here the adverbs and adverbial phrases are huddled to- 
gether in the centre. They should be distributed thus : At the suggestion 
of Ireton, Cromwell secretly called a council of his chief officers at Wind- 
sor to deliberate concerning the settlement of the nation. 

Exercise 37. 
In the following sentences, see in how many different posi- 
tions you can place the Adverbs, and tell what difference the 
change of position will make in the meaning of each sentence. 

1. We use to see them very frequently. 

2. Sometimes he returns home very late. 

3. I really am not at all sorry. 

4. We may probably go there to-morrow. 

5. When I called at your house yesterday I left my stick behind me. 

6. They set off early this morning for London. 

7. We all dine out to-day. 

8. He acted throughout with great discretion. 

9. The winter is past ; already the trees and herbs begin to unfold their 

tender green. 

10. At last he opened his mouth and spoke. 

11. He resolved immediately to make an apology. 

12. I went immediately to his assistance, and never shall I forget the scene. 

6. Syntax of Prepositions. 
I. How to Parse the Preposition. 
315. The Preposition is very easily parsed. All you have 
to do is to say — 

It links such and such a noun or pronoun [naming it] to 
such and such another word [naming it]. 

Model. — Around the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. 
Around a preposition, linking the noun rocks to the verb ran. 

Exercise 38. 
Dispose of the Prepositions. 

1. The smiling daisies blow beneath the sun. 

2. We crossed the river by a bridge made of ropes. 

3. They sat them down upon the yellow sand. 

4. We visited the ruins of the great Thebes. 

5. How fresh the meadows look above the river. . 

6. The mocking-bird loses little of its energy by .confinement. 

7. The deer across their greensward bound. 

8. I saw a wearied man dismount from his hot steed. 

9. She waited underneath the dawning hills. 

10. The noise of battle rolled among the mountains by the winter sea. 

11. The light white cloud swam over us. 

12. Her tears fell with the dews at even. 



116 SYNTAX. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Preposition. 
Position of Prepositions. 

316. The usual position of prepositions (pre, before, and 
positio, a placing) is before the words they govern. 

317. But in poetry the preposition frequently follows the 
word it governs ; as, The rattling crags among. — Byron. 

318. The Preposition should not be separated by an interme- 
diate clause from the word it governs. ' Appears Lausanne, 
with at its feet the little village of Ouchy,' should be c with 
the little village,' etc. 

Repetition of Prepositions. 

319. When the introductory correlative/ both/ 'either/ or 
' neither/ is followed by a preposition, that preposition must be 
repeated after the conjunctions i and/ * or/ and ' nor' in the suc- 
ceeding part of the sentence. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. This, in philosophical writing, has a disagreeable effect, 

both upon the memory and upon the understanding 
of the reader. 

2. Mary is neither in the house nor in the garden. 

3. We shall consider each of these three objects in versi- 

fication both with respect to the feet and the pauses. 
— Murray *s Grammar. 

Explanation. — This should be 'with respect both to the feet and to 
the pauses.' 

4. Performing at the same time the offices both of the 

nominative and objective cases. 

Explanation. — This should be, 'performing at the same time the of- 
fices both of the nominative and of the objective case. 7 The article 'the' 
is repeated before the word objective in accordance with T 294 (2). 

5. The choice of prefixes or suffixes is determined not 

merely by their meaning, but, etc. — KerTs Grammar. 

Explanation. — Better, The choice of prefixes or of suffixes, etc.; be- 
cause, when the correlative both, either, or neither, is plainly implied, the 
principle given above holds good. 

6. That is applied to persons as well as [to] things. 

Explanation. — The preposition used before the first of two nouns 
joiued by the connection as well as, should be used before the second also. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 117 

'Between' and 'Among.' 

320. Between literally signifies by tviain, that is, by two's. 
Hence it can not apply to more than two. We may say 
mother divided the apple between sister and me, but not be- 
tween John, James, and Martha. The preposition among or 
amongst is used to denote distribution applied to more than 
two. The booty was divided among the forty thieves. 

Rhetoric of Prepositions. 

321. A statement is sometimes made effective by repeating 
the preposition before each one of a string of words. Thus, 
I will buy with you, sell with you, talk with you, walk with 
you ; but I will not eat with you, drink with you, nor pray 
with you. — Shakspeare. 

s Appropriate Prepositions. 

322. There are many words that can be followed by but 
one preposition ; there are other words that admit different 
prepositions, the sense greatly varying with each. Care should 
be taken to select the preposition exactly adapted to express the 
relation intended. 

1. Making sense of itself. — Murray's Grammar. Should 
be by itself. 
f 2. In respect of time. — Murray. Should be With respect j 
to time. *s 

3. When I w r as deliberating to what new qualifications I 
should aspire, should be, When I was deliberating 
with regard to what new, etc. 
Ask for. — If he ask for bread, will he give him a stone? — Bible. 
Ask from. — We ask not such from thee. — Hemans. 
Ask of. — But of the never-dying soul ask things that can not die. 
A verse from.—*- Because my nature was averse from life. — Byron. 
Averse to. — Averse to all innovation. 

Call at (a house). — He ordered him to call at his house. — Temple. 
Call back (retract). — Will not call back his words. — Bible. 
Call for (demand, claim). — His majesty doth call for you. — Shakspeare. 
Call in (invite). — Call in the powers, good cousin. — Shakspeare. 
Call upon (pray). — Call upon me in the day of trouble. — Bible. 
Compare to (as illustration). — He compared reason to the sun, and fancy 

to a meteor. — Johnson. 
Compare with (in quality). — Compare their condition with his own. 
Concur in (opinion). — As if all my executors had concurred in the same. — 

Swift. 
Concur with (a person). — It is not evil simply to concur with the heathens. 
— Hooker. 



LtinjgaK 



118 SYNTAX. 

Consist in (contain).— Wit consists in such a resemblance and congruity, 

etc . — A ddison. 
Consist o/^made of). — The land would consist of plains and valleys. — 

Burnett. 
Consist with (agree).— Health consists with temperance alone. — Pope. 
Contend against (an* obstacle). — Contend against thy valor. — Shakspeare. 
Contend with (a person).- — Neither contend with them. — Bible. 
Copy after (an example). — Several seemed to have copied after it. 
Copy from (as a painter).- — A painter copies from the life. — Dry den. 
Defend (others) from. — He defends them /row danger. 
Defend (ourselves) against. — The queen is able to defend herself against 

all her enemies. — Swift. 
Die o/ (disease). — She died of scarlet fever. 

Differ from (in quality). — Nor how the hero differs from the brute^ 
Differ with (in opinion). — Those who differ with you in their sentir 

— Addison. 
Disappointed in (what is had). — He was disappointed in his friend. 
Disappointed o/^what is not had). — Than to be disappointed of what we 

have only the expectation. — Adam Smith. 
Divide amongst or among (three or more). — Divide it amongst the men. 
Divide between (two). — It was divided between her heart and lips. 
Exception from (a rule or law). 
Exception to (rule or law). — That proud exception to all nature's laws. — 

Pope. 
Indulge in (habitual). — We indulge ourselves in the gratifications, etc. — 

A tterbury. 
Indulge with (occasional). 

Lean against (a wall). — Leaning against a pillar. — Peacham. 
Lean on (a staff). — I lean no more on superhuman aid.- — Byron. 
Lean to (an opinion).— Leaning to either side. — Watts. 
Lean to (bias). — Leaned to virtue's side. — Goldsmith. 
Listen for {expected sound). — He listened for the traveler's tread. 
Listen to (present sound). — Listen to the noise. — Dennis. 
Live at a small town • live in London ; live in France. My father lived 

at Blenheim then. — Southey. 
Live at. — Who live at home at ease. — Dorset. 
Live in (state). — He lived and died in poverty. 
Live upon (food). — They live upon other animals. — Arbuthnot. 
Live up to (rules). — Live up to the dictates of reason. — Addison. 
Live with (a person). — Then live with me. — Shakspeare. 
Look at (to regard). — As if it looked at something. — Sterne. 
Look for (what is lost or expected). — Looked for death with the same ex- 
pectation as for victory. — Southey. 
Look on (see). — I'll be candle-holder, and look on. — Shakspeare. 
Look to (guard). — Look well to thy herds. — Bible. 
Look upon.— -Look not upon me thus reproachfully. — Byron. 
Look up to (heaven). — Let us look up to God. — Bacon. 
Prevail on *) 

Prevail upon > (persuade). ■ — Prevail upon some judicious friend. — Swift. 
Prevail with ) 

Sink beneath (a sword). — Worlds must sink beneath the stroke. 
Sink down (penetrate, faint). 



SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 119 

Sink into (into the sea or earth). — He sinks into thy depths. — Byron. 

Sink under (a burden). — A nation sinking under its debts. — Junius. 

Sink upon (ground, bosom). — He sank upon my breast. — Ilemans. 

Start at (dreadful sight). — He starts at sin. — Dry den. 

Start from (a place). — Shall start from every wave. — Campbell. 

Start with (a companion). 

Start up (spring). — Start up from the dead. — Pope. 

Strive against J a person or ) Private pity strove ivith public hate. — Den- 

Strive with ( obstacle ) ham. 

Strive for (an object). — Pretenders oft for empire strive. — Dry den. 

Struggle for (an object). 

Struggle with (a person). 

Taste for (inclination). — A taste for wit and sense. — Swift. 

Taste of (morsel, flavor). — The taste of it was like wafers. 

Weary in. — Weary in well-doing. 

Weary q/*(task, duty). — Society grown weary of the load. — Cowper, 

Weary with. — Not to be weary with you. — Shaks'geare. 

Wait at (table). — Made him wait at table. — Swift. 

Wait/or (an expectation). — And waited for his prey. — Southey. 

Wait on (a person). — I will wait on him. — Shakspeare. 

7. Syntax of the Conjunction. 
I. How to Paese the Conjunction. 

323. Parse the Conjunction by saying that— 

It joins the statements [naming them] by joining such and 
such words (verbs, nouns), etc. [naming them]. 

Model. — The day is fine and the sun shines. 

And a copulative conjunction, connects the two statements 'the day 

is fine,' ' the sun shines.' 

Wisdom is better than gold. 

Than a conjunction, connects the statement 'Wisdom is better' with 

the elliptical statement ' gold [is]. ' 

324. In disposing of the correlative conjunctions 'both — j 
and,' c neither — nor,' ' though — yet,' ' as — as,' ' so — that,' say y 
that the former of the pair serves to introduce the connection \ 
made by the other. 

Exercise 39. 
Dispose of the Conjunctions. 

1. He has some money, but you have none. 

2. 'Twas noon, 
And Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool 
In the lone wilderness. 

3. The trees have lost their foliage because autumn has come. 

4. Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 



120 SYNTAX. 

6. The boy breathes so very hard that we find it impossible to sit. 
6. Neither the horse nor the carriage was injured. 

II. Practical Syntax of the Conjunction. 

Note. — The Syntax of Conjunctions has been treated incidentally in 
connection with other parts of speech. Conjunctions have very little syn- 
tax of their own. They indeed exercise an important influence over words 
associated with the words that they conjoin ; but this influence has already 
been considered under the Verb, the Adjective, etc. The following are 
the principal points relating to conjunctions themselves : 

'And/ or 'Or.' 

325. The Copulative and is sometimes wrongly used in 
place of the Disjunctive or. Also, or is often misused for 
and. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. It is obvious that a language like the Greek and Latin, 

etc. 

Explanation. — Here the fit conjunction is ' or.' Moreover, in accord- 
ance with the principle stated in % 294 (2), the definite article should be re- 
peated with the second noun. The expression correctly written stands 
thus : It is obvious that a language like the Greek or the Latin, etc. 

2. A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, in- 

deed, of every other language, would contain a num- 
i ber of letters precisely equal to the number of single 
articulate words belonsfinp- to the language. — Mur- 
ray s Grammar. 

Explanation. — The same error is found here. The author should 
have written, A perfect alphabet of the English language, or, indeed, of any 
other language, would, etc. 

3. Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. — BrowrCs 

Grammar. 

Explanation. — The conjunction 'and' would here better serve to make 
the connection intended : ' Relate to nouns and to pronouns. ' 

' Or— its double use. 

326. Remember the double function of the conjunction or 
—its use in joining two parts of an alternative, and its use in 
uniting synonyms. Christ or John the Baptist = Christ, or 
(what is another person) John the Baptist ; Christ, or the 
Messiah = Christ, or (what is the same person) the Messiah. 

In the language of law, the latter use of or is expressed by alias ; as, 
Heenan, alias the Benicia Boy. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 121 

* Not — or' and ' Not— nor/ 

327. When, of two members that are disjoined, the first is 
a negative, the contrast may be mad^ either by or or by nor. 
Thus, The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigor- 
ous, nor [or or] decisive, assented to the measure. — Hume. 
The nor is more emphatic, as it repeats the negative of the 
first term. 

4 So— that.' 

328. In constructions requiring that as the correlative of 
so, be careful not to use the relative pronoun who in place of 
the conjunctions 'that' or 'as.' 

ILLUSTRATION. 

At Bunker Hill there was no one so sanguine but who 
feared defeat. 

Explanation. — -'Who' can not play the part of a correlative to 'so.' 
Either ' that' or ' as' should be employed. Thus, ' There was no one so 
sanguine that he did not fear defeat,' or, 'no one so sanguine as not to 
fear defeat.' 

■ Doubt,' 'but,' or 'that/ 

329. The verb doubt is followed by either that or but. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. I can not doubt that I have contributed something to 

the general literature of my country. — Hallam. 

2. It is not doubted but the bishops were constituent 

members of this council. — Hume. 
Caution. — Be careful not to follow ' doubt' by ' but that' or 'but what.' 

'As — as,' 'so — as.' 

330. 'As — as' is used in affirmative comparison; ' so — as' in 
negative comparison. Example : Mine is as good as yours ; 
but his is not so good as either. 

'And — and,' 'nor — nor.' 

331. In poetry, ' and — and' is often used for 'both — and;' 
' nor — nor' for ' neither — nor.' Example : And trump and 
timbrel answered keen. — Scott. I, whom nor avarice nor 
pleasure moves. 

1 Neither— nor ;' 'Either— or;' ' Whether— or.' 

332. These may be called alternative conjunctions. An al- 
ternative is a choice between two, and only two : hence these 

P 




122 SYNTAX. 

conjunctions must not be used to couple more than two terms, 
'Either — or' denotes one thing with a choice of another y 
c neither' means simply not either ; ' whether — or' means lit- 
erally which of the two — or. This principle is constantly lo 
sight of. 

ILLUSTKATIONS. 

1. These rules should be kept in mind as aids either for 

speaking, composing, or parsing correctly. — MorrelVs 
Grammar. 

Explanation.— Incorrect. Rectify it by omitting the ' either.' 

2. Neither in France, in Spain, in Italy, nor in Germany, 

is this false and absurd appellation in use. — CobbeWs 
Grammar. / 

Correct thus : 'This false and absurd appellation is not in use in France, 
Spain, Italy, or Germany. ' 

'Now.' 

333. There is a peculiar use of the adverb 'now,' that ren- 
ders it in certain cases a conjunction. Example: He was 
promised a holiday if he executed his task; ?ioio,he has donej 
the task ; hence he is entitled to the holiday. 

Connection of Terms. 

334. Any two terms that we connect by a conjunction 
should be the same in kind or quality, not different or hete- 
rogeneous. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Macaulay wrote the history of England with the two- 

fold purpose of clearing the name of the Whigs from 
the charges made by Hume, and to set forth the real 
life of the English people. 
Explanation. — Notice the two expressions joined by the conjunction 
'and.' 'The purpose of clearing the name,' etc., and 'the purpose [un- 
derstood] to setforth^ etc. The two terms are different or heterogeneous 
— the one being a participial construction, the other an infinitive construc- 
tion, and accordingly the sentence violates the rule. Correct it thus : The 
purpose of clearing the name, etc., and of setting forth the real life, etc. 

2. There are many persons who have the means of doing 

good, but have not the desire to do good. 
Explanation. — The fault lies in joining, by means of the conjunction 
'but,' two terms that are not of the same kind or quality, namely, ' of do- 
ing good,' and 'to do good.' The sentence may be correctly turned thus : 
Many persons have the means of doing good, but have not the desire of do- 
ing good ; or, better still, Many persons have the means, without the de- 
sire, of doing good. 



PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTION. 123 

3. I would do as much or more work than John. 

Explanation. — This is a somewhat complicated blunder; let us see if 
we can detect exactly where the fault lies. The sentence makes, in point 
of fact, tw T o statements : 

(1.) 'I would do as much work than John' (we must supply the 'than,' 
because it is expressed in the second member). 

(2.) 'I would do more work than John.' 

But ' as much than' is nonsense, since the compound conjunction is £ as 
much as.' The way to turn such a sentence is to say, ' I would do as much 
work as John, or more. 1 

4. The happy historian has no other labor than | of gath- 

ering what tradition pours down before him. 

Explanation. — In this sentence the conjunction than connects what 
terms ? The terms ' other labor' and ' of gathering. ' But these are of 
wholly different kinds or qualities. The sentence is corrected by supplying 
the pronoun 4 that' to correspond with the term \ other labor.' Thus The 
happy historian has no other labor than that of gathering what tradition 
pours dow 7 n before him. 

Ellipsis of Conjunctions. 

335. Some conjunctions are often properly suppressed. 
Such are : 

1. And and or before all but the last of several words, 

phrases, or clauses of the same kind in a series, and 
in the elevated style of writing, even before the last. 
Example : Science has now left her retreats, [and] 
her shades, [and] her selected company of votaries. 

2. Either before or, and neither before nor. Example : 

None of them [either] returned his gaze, or seemed 
to notice it. — Dickens. 

3. That when the connecting word between the principal 

member and the dependent proposition of a sentence. 
Example : But Brutus says [that] he w^as ambitious. 
— Shakspeare. " You're sure [that] you did not, sir," 
said Mr. Winkle. — Dickens. 

4. Yet after though. Example. — Though he fall, [yet] he 

shall not be utterly cast down. 

The Rhetoric of Conjunctions. 

336. A rhetorical effect maybe produced by omitting con- 
junctions. In like manner, a rhetorical effect is produced by 
supplying conjunctions where they would ordinarily be omit- 
ted. In each case it is departure from the commonplace prac- 
tice that produces the effect. 



124 SYNTAX. 

Illusteation — Conjunction omitted. 

Through many a dark and dreary vale 
They passed, and many a region dolorous ; 
O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
Rocks, caves, lakes, fens, bogs, dens, and shades of death, 
A universe of death.— Milton. 

Illusteation — Conjunctions in full. 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. — Milton. 

8. Syntax of Moods and Tenses. 
4 If he is' and ' If he be.' 

337. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether to use the In- 
dicative or the Subjunctive Mood when the verb is preceded 
by a conditional conjunction; that is, to know whether to 
say if he be or if he is, if he love or if he loves. 

338. The rule is that, whenever one of the potential auxil- 
iaries, 'may,' 'can/ 'would/ 'should/ is understood, or the future 
auxiliary ' shall/ the subjunctive form is to be used. 

Note. — (a) The potential auxiliary is understood when doubt or contin- 
gency is implied. Keview what is said on the real nature of the Subjunc- 
tive Mood, f 157-160. 

(b) The choice between the Indicative and the so-called Subjunctive 
Mood has long been a matter of great practical difficulty. It is believed 
that the above treatment of the subjunctive as an elliptical form of the Po- 
tential will serve to make the matter at least a little more intelligible. The 
tendency of modern usage is wholly to disregard the niceties of the Sub- 
junctive Mood, and it seems probable that this form will in time wholly 
disappear from our language. The irregular verb to be is the only verb 
retaining any thing like full inflection of the Subjunctive Mood. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 
Explanation. — In this sentence 'slaf is rightly in the Subjunctive 

Mood, and the indicative slays would be wrong. Putting the sentence in 
the regular or common order, it will stand, 

I will trust in him, though he [may] slay me. 
Since * may' is understood, we must use slay [the Subjunctive Mood], 
since to say may slays would be absurd. 

2. If he believes in the law of charity, he does not prac- 

tice it. 
Explanation. — In this sentence, it is plain that there is no contingency 
implied, for we can not supply a potential auxiliary, and say ' if he [may] 



SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 125 

believe.' The statement is assumed as a fact, and is equivalent to 'If he 
does believe in the law of charity, he does not practice it.' Hence the con- 
ditional form of the Indicative Mood is correctly used after the conjunc- 
tion if. Whenever the Indicative auxiliary does or do can be supplied, the 
Indicative Mood is required after the Conditional Conjunctions. 

Remember that the Conjunctions 'of,' 'though,' ' but,' 'unless,' etc., are 
not signs of the Subjunctive Mood. They may be used with either the In- 
dicative or the Subjunctive Mood, the sense determining which should be em- 
ployed. 

3. If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted. 
Explanation. — If he speaks =if he does speak, not If he may speak. 

Hence the Indicative is correctly used. 

4. He acts uprightly unless he deceives me. 
Explanation. — This does not mean unless he may deceive me, but un- 
less he does deceive me. Hence the Indicative is used. 

5. If he see the signal he will answer. 

Explanation. — This means if he shall see, or if he should see; hence 
the subjunctive is the proper form. If the sentence meant if he does see, 
the indicative form, if he sees, would be used. 

6. If it were {it should be] done, when 'tis done, 

Then 'twere [it would be] well it were [it should be] 
done quickly. — Shakspeare. 

The Use of Tenses. 

339. In constructing a sentence, be careful to use the tense 
of the verb fitted to express the exact meaning. The appli- 
cation of this principle will be seen by the following illustra- 
tions : 

Present Infinitive. 

1. Last week I intended to have written him a letter. 

Explanation. — This is a very common form of expression, but it is in- 
correct. No matter how long it now is since I thought of writing, to write 
was present to me when I intended, and must still be considered present 
when I recall the intention. The sentence should be, Last week I intended 
to write a letter. 

2. I expected last year to have gone to Europe on busi- 

ness. 
Explanation. — For the same reason as before given, this sentence 
should read, I expected last year to go to Europe on business. 

3. When I went to Europe I hoped to have visited Italy. 
Explanation. — For the same reason as before given, this sentence 

should be, I hoped to visit, etc. 

4. It is a long time since I commanded him to have done 

it. 
Explanation. — This sentence is formed on the model of the three fore- 



126 SYNTAX. 

going sentences. It will readily be seen that it is absurd, but it is no worse 
than the others are. 

340. The following rule applies to sentences like the above : 
All verbs expressing hope, desire, intention, or command, must 
be followed by the Present Infinitive, and not by the Perfect In- 
finitive. 

Perfect Infinitive. 

1. Bishop Usher believed the earth to have been created 

4004 B.C. 
Explanation. — Here it is evident that the Perfect Infinitive is correct- 
ly used, the sentence being equivalent to ■ Bishop Usher believed that the 
earth was created 4004 B.C. — the created being a past event at the time 
Bishop Usher formed his opinion. 

2. Alexander considered the battle of the Granicus to have 

been icon by the charge of the Macedonian phalanx. 
Here the act spoken of is regarded as having been completed be/ore the 
time when he considered. 

341. These illustrations show that the Perfect Infinitive is 
used if the act spoken of is regarded as completed before the 
time expressed by the following verb. 

®° It is evident from these examples that whether the Present Infini- 
tive is to be used or the Perfect Infinitive depends on the idea to be con- 
veyed. 

Harmony of Tenses. 

342. A proper harmony and correspondence of Tenses must be 
observed. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. I shall be much gratified if you would favor us with. 

your company. 
Explanation. — A proper harmony requires the future indicative, c will 
favor,' not the past potential, ' would favor.' 

2. I feared that I should have missed the train before I 

reached the depot. 
Explanation. — This is equivalent to ' at that time [past] I feared that I 
should miss [future] the train before I reached the depot. Hence the sen- 
tence should read, I feared that I should miss the train before I reached the 
depot. 

3. I can not excuse the carelessness of the officer whose 

duty it was to have watched the enemy's approach. 
It should be to watch. 

4. Columbus believed that the earth wa& .spherical. 
Explanation. — Here ivas should be is. because it is not the intention 



SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 127 

to state that the roundness of the earth was a fact of the past ; it is an im- 
mutable truth, and the rule is that such statements must always be made 
in the present tense. 

5. If you are not careful, you might fall overboard. 
The proper tense is ' may fall. ' 

6. I know him for more than ten years. 
Say have known. 

7. Nor has it ever been seriously undertaken, until it was 

commenced, within the last ten years, by the Lon- 
don Philological Society. — Harsh. 
The present perfect tense is here wrongly used. It should be, Nor was 
it ever seriously undertaken, etc., or else, Nor had it ever been, etc. 

Correct the following : 1. By letters dated May 3d, we learn 
that the West India fleet arrived safely. 2. I have lost the 
game, though I thought I should have won it. 3. The next 
New-Year's day I shall be at school three years. 

Ellipsis of Verbs. 

343. The following sentences illustrate a common blunder 
in the ellipsis of parts of compound verbs : 

1. This elucidation may serve for almost any book that 

has, is, or shall be published. — Bolingbroke. 
Explanation. — 'Published,' the past participle of the verb publish, is 
correctly used with i shall be ;' its ellipsis with i is 1 is proper ; but the ellip- 
sis with ' has' is not correct, because the writer intended to say has been 
published, using the present perfect tense, passive voice. 

344. Hence the rule : When two or more Compound Tenses 
of the same Verb are connected, such parts of the Tenses as are 
not common to all must be inserted in full. 

2. Did he not tell you his fault, and entreated you to for- 

give him ? 
Explanation. — The two verbs here connected are 'did tell' and 'en- 
treated;' but, supplying the ellipsis before the second verb, we have ' did 
he not entreated,' which is incorrect, as ' did' is never used with a past par- 
ticiple. The sentence fully corrected is, ' Did he not tell you his fault, and 
did he not entreat you to forgive him?' It is allowable to drop the aux- 
iliary before the second verb if the verb is put into a form to harmonize 
with the auxiliary ; hence we may say, ' Did he not tell you his fault, and 
entreat,' etc. 

Hence the rule : When Verbs are connected by a Conjunc- 
tion, never mate an ellipsis of an auxiliary used before the first 
Verb if the after forms of the Verb will not harmonize with the 
auxiliary when supplied. 



128 SYNTAX. 

Shall and Will. 
' 1 to ill drown ; nobody shall help me.' 

The unfortunate foreigner that fell into a river, not understanding En- 
glish idioms, exactly reversed the places of shall and will when he made 
use of this exclamation. He meant to say, I shall drown [i. e. , I expect 
to drown], because nobody will help me.' 

345. The correct and elegant use of shall and icill is one 
of the most difficult things in the English language for a for- 
eigner to learn. Correct usage, indeed, is often violated by 
those that speak and write English as their mother tongue. 

346. Shall and will are the two auxiliaries by which we ex- 
press our future tense, the English language having no dis- 
tinct and separate forms of the verb to express mere future 
time ; but each of these auxiliaries has its own specific shade 
of meaning besides that of futurity, and hence arise many 
nice distinctions in their peculiar and appropriate uses. 

Shall etymologically means to owe, or to be morally bound. It is traced 
back in its origin to the Gothic skal, which meant I have killed, and thence 
I owe the penalty. Chaucer writes, ' By the faith I shall to God, ' meaning 
'I owe to God.' Will means to wish, or to be willing. Etymologically, 
then, Shall implies obligation or necessity, and Will implies wish, con- 
sent, or volition. 

Case I.— Futurity. 

I ) You ) 

-up- > shall write. He V will write. 

We * They) 

347. The reason of the preceding use of shall in the first 
person, and will in the second and third persons, seems to be 
this : When a person says, c I shall write a letter,' he express- 
es his own obligation to write; but he expresses the obliga- 
tion of another person more deferentially and delicately by 
referring to that person's wish rather than to obligation. It 
is a form of grammatical politeness. 

348. The misuse of will instead of shall in the first person, 
denoting mere futurity, is common in many parts of our 
country; thus: 

'In a century hence we will [shall] be a great and power- 
ful people.' — Newspaper. 

'We will [shall] undoubtedly elect our candidate by a 
large majority.' — Newspaper. 

The same rule of courtesy is the reason why shall is not always used in 
the first person plural. When we means he and I, it is followed by shall; 



SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 129 

but when it means you and /, the courteous and deferential will takes the 
place of shall. If the speaker puts himself in the third person he will not 
use shall; as, ' Mr. Brown will be glad of Mr. Smith's company at dinner 
to-day,' or, ' Dear Smith, I shall be glad of your company to-day at dinner.' 

Case II.— Determination, Command. 
il You ) 

Wq \ will write. He > shall write. 

vveJ They) 

349. 'We will write' may mean 'We promise to write,' or 

it may express our determination to write. In either case 

icill retains its proper force, to wish^ to resolve^ to consent. 

4 You shall write' means ' I have power over you, and I am 

determined to force you to write ;' i. 6., I will you to write. 

In the two common forms of polite speech, ' I shall be obliged to you' 

and ' I will thank you,' the auxiliaries are rightly placed, and ought not to 

be reversed. * I shall be greatly obliged to you' foretells an obligation in 

the future for which I ought to thank you, and ' I will thank you' expresses 

my intention or my promise to thank you. ' I will be greatly obliged to 

you' and 'I shall thank you' are inelegant and ungrammatical. 

Case III.— Asking Questions. 

Shall I write ? Will you write ? 

Shall we write ? Will he or they write ? 

350.- The usual form in interrogative sentences is shall in 
the first person, and icill in the others, but it can not be laid 
down as an invariable rule to reverse the declarative forms. 
Thus we say, 4 Will you go ?' or c Shall you go ?' The first 
form implies a request/ the second form, intention. 

351. In ashing a question toe generally use the form of ex- 
pression in ichich we expect the answer to be given. 

If I say ' Shall you go to school to-morrow ?' [Do you intend to go to 
school to-morrow ?], I expect the answer from you ' I shall' [I intend to 
go]. If I expect a promise, I say, 'Will you write a composition ?' and ex- 
pect the promise 'I will.' It is a piece of good manners, a part of gram- 
matical courtesy. 

* You will go to school to-morrow' may be said affirmatively even, with 
the rising inflection, and then the answer expected is 'I will,' or ' I will not.' 
The expression 'You will go to school to-morrow, shall you not?' may 
seem to be redundant, but it is quite correct. 

Blunders in Verbs. 

352. The following are some of the most common vulgar- 
isms in the use of verbs. 

1. I done [did] my example in arithmetic correctly. 

Why is this a stupid blunder ? Correct it, and be careful not to use so 
gross a vulgarism either in talking or in writing. 

F 2 



130 SYNTAX. 

2. Irsehn him when he done it. 
What are the two vulgarisms here used ? 

3. Where is Alice ? She has went [gone] to school. 
Why does this jar on the ear of every cultivated person ? 

4. Hadn't [had not] I ought to do it ? 

Had is never used as an auxiliary of ought. You should say ' ought not 
I to do it ?' 

5. I had rather not do it. 

Explanation. — Say 'I would rather not do it.' The written form, 
sometimes seen, probably originated in a mistake as to the composition of 
the oral expression, \ Fd rather not,' etc. It is an abbreviation of I would 
rather, and not of I had rather. ' I'd [=1 would] rather be a dog and bay 
the moon.' — Shakspeare. 

6. 'TisnH a wasp. Ifs John that goes to school. 
Explanation. — 'Tis and ifs are not commendable forms for it is. 

Though allowable in conversation, they should not be used in written com- 
position. ' 'Tis' is a poetic license, as, 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. — Shakspeare. 

1. I have not done it yet, but I mean to. 

Explanation. — It is very clumsy to omit the infinitive after to; and 
though in ordinary conversation this ellipsis often occurs, it is not allowa- 
. ble in accurate writing. Either repeat the verb, or supply its place by do 
or do so. ' I have not done it yet, but I mean to do it. 1 ' You may take 
a walk, if you like.' Better thus : ' You may take a walk, if you like to 
do so.' 

'Is BEIXG DONE.' 

353. Forms like the above are felt to be very awkward. 
The house is being built, It has been being built many months, 
are such disagreeable phrases, through the repetition of the 
verb be, that we avoid them when possible. It is common 
even to say the house is building, or has been building, as if 
build were an intransitive verb. But this is not strictly cor- 
rect. The old English expression, It is a-building [at build- 
ingS'm the process of building'), is preferable, though seldom 
used. We must choose among the following forms of ex- 
pression : 

The house has been many months a building (which is 
good old Saxon English) ; 

The house has been "many months building (perhaps el- 
liptical for the above, but in itself incorrect) ; 

The house has been many months being built (which is 
correct, but intolerably awkward). 



\ 



SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 131 

Or we must vary the expression by saying, 

They have been many months building the house ; 
Or, The house has been many months in course (or pro- 
cess) of building. 

Exercise 39. 
The following sentences illustrate a great variety of faults 
of syntax. The pupil, in correcting these sentences, is to ap- 
ply the principles heretofore learned: 

1. This is very easy done. Hr - 
-2. The great historian and the essayist is no more. 

3. It could not have been her. 4- 
•4. Did you see the man and the dog which passed this way? 

5. I intend to immediately retire from business. «•#■ 

6. I think I will return home next week, f 

7. He seldom or ever visits us. 

8. It is thinkingjnakes what we read ours. 

9. The death was announced lately of the great statesman. 

10. Who are you looking for ? 

11. The collection of books that have come down to us from that period 

are very valuable. 

12. I expected to have been at home when you called. 

13. It was him and me that were chosen to go. 

14. When will we three meet again? 
c? 15. He not only ought, but must succeed. ~ 

3 16. I never saw it rain so heavy before. 

17. His work is one of the best that have ever appeared. 
°18. It has been said that politics are but little more than common sense. 
19. Metal types were now introduced, which before this time had be^n made | 
of wood. 
^* 20. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind. 

21. The booK is fitted either for school or private use. 

22. This is one of the most memorable battles that ever have or will be 

fought. 

23. All thinking men believe that the soul was immortal. 

24. He found he had lost his sight, and was led from the battle-field by a 

soldier. 

25. It is now five days since you have arrived. 

26. I trust you shall overlook the circumstance of me having come to school 

late. 
*> 27. The regiment had no less than a hundred men fell in the engagement. 

28. What is the difference between an adjective and participle ? 

29. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 
^30. Have you no other book but this? 

31. He is only fitted to govern others who can govern himself. 

32. The spirit, and not the letter, of the law are what we ought to follow. 

33. This one seems more preferable than the other. 

34. The inscription gave the name and age of the deceased merely. 

35. Once upon a time there lived a poor man who had two sons, near a 

wood. 






132 SYNTAX. 

q- 36. I found the knight under the butler's hands who always shaved him. i" 

37. Flour will not do to make our bread alone. 

38. No one in England knew what tea was two hundred years ago. 

39. The man could neither read or write. 

40. The Book of Psalms were written by David. 

41. That building must be either a church or school. 

42. Here come my old friend and teacher. 

43. The minute finger and the hour hand has each its particular use. 

44. Which of that group of men is the taller ? 

45. What boy amongst us can foretell their future career ? 

46. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 

47. An account of the great events in all parts of the world are given in 

the daily papers. 

48. I shall not trouble any reader, being studious of brevity, with all the 

curiosities I observed. 

49. If were in his position, I would not have gone. 

50. They would neither eat themselves nor suffer nobody else to eat. 

51. Wild horses are caught with a lasso, or a noose. 

52. Did you expect to have heard so poor a speech ? 

53. I can not give you no more money. 

54. Am I the scholar who am to be punished. 

55. There were a large number of soldiers killed and wounded. 

56. We did no more but what we ought to. 

57. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

58. He is a man of remarkable clear intellect. 

59. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 

60. I never have nor never will forgive him. 

61. Every one is the best judge of their own conscience. 

62. They told me of him having failed^ 

63. I understand why the water never rises high quite well. 

64. He has already, and will continue to receive many honors. 

65. A dervise was met by two merchants traveling alone in a desert. 

66. One species of bread of coarse quality was only allowed to be baked. 

67. The party whom he invited was very numerous. 

68. It is now about four hundred years since the art of multiplying books 

has been discovered. 

69. An officer on European and on Indian service are in very different sit- 

uations. 

70. The doctor said in his lecture that fever always produced thirst. 

71. Alarmed by so unusual an occurrence, it was resolved to postpone their 

departure. 

72. The Annals of Florence are a most imposing work. 

73. Such expressions sound harshly. 

74. What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting so important a 

business ? 

75. Either you or I are in the way. 

76. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 

77. I do not think that leisure of life and tranquillity of mind, which for- 

tune and your own wisdom has given you, could be better employed. 

78. That is seldom or ever the case. 

79. The fact of me being a stranger to him does not justify his conduct. 

80. Let me awake the King of Morven, he that is like the sun of heaven 

rising in a storm. 



SYNTAX OF MOODS AND TENSES. 133 

81. Either the young man or his guardian have acted improperly. 

82. I had several men died in my ship of yellow fever. 

83. The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were 

written many years ago. 

84. A talent of this kind would perhaps prove the likeliest of any other to 

succeed. 

85. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very different. 

86. On your conduct at this moment depends the color and complexion of 

their destiny. 

87. I have never seen Major Cartwright, much less enjoy the honor of his 

acquaintance. 

88. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 

89. That is either a man or a woman's voice. 

90. Man, though he has great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within 

his own breast. 

91. The ebb and flow of the tides were explained by Newton. 

92. And indeed in some cases we derive as much or more pleasure from 

that source than from any thing else. 

93. The number of inhabitants were not more than four millions. 

94. The logical and historical analysis of a language generally in some de- 

gree coincides. 

95. But she fell a laughing like one out of their right mind. 

96. Verse and prose run into one another like light and shade. 

97. Homer had the greatest invention of any writer whatever. 

98. Of all the other qualities of style, clearness is the most important. 

99. That is applied to persons as well as things. 

100. The maps are clear, attractive in appearance, and not encumbered 
with minute details calculated only to embarrass the learner, ex- 
cept the reference maps, which are very full and complete. 




PART III. 
ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

DEFINITION. 

354. Analysis is resolving sentences into their component 
parts. The principles of Analysis applied to the building 
of sentences may be called Synthesis or Construction. 

Note. — Analysis is a sort of general syntax (being equally applicable to 
all languages), and in this text-book is made to follow the Special Syntax 
of our own tongue. To analyze well-written sentences into their constitu- 
ent parts is the best means of understanding how to write correctly our- 
selves. As in Chemistry, so in Grammar, there are two processes, Analysis 
and Synthesis. The former resolves a compound into its elements ; the 
latter puts elementary substances together to form a compound. And as 
the chemist takes a substance to pieces, and thus learns what elements go 
to its formation, so the grammarian analyzes a sentence into its element- 
ary parts. Then, too, as the chemist combines substances, so the gram- 
marian puts words together synthetically. 

CHAPTER I 

1. Sentences. 

355. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed by means 
either of one proposition or of several propositions. 

Practically a sentence embraces all the words between two full stops. 

356. A Proposition is the statement of a single fact by 
means of one subject and of one predicate. 

357. Propositions are of two kinds: 

1. Principal — containing the leading statement or state- 
ments of the sentence. 

2. Dependent — containing the subordinate statement or 
statements of the sentence. 

Note. — The term clause, whenever used in this book, is synonymous 
with dependent proposition. 

358. Sentences are divided into Simple, Complex, and Com- 
pound. 

1. A Simple sentence consists of a single proposition. 

2. A Complex sentence consists of one principal proposi- 

tion, together with one or more dependent proposi- 
tion s.^Mm^^^ 



SENTENCES. 135 

3. A Compound sentence consists of two or more prin- 
cipal propositions. 

Illustrations of Sentences. 

1. Simple Sentence, — 'I hear thee speak of the better 

land.' 'At daybreak, all fears were dispelled.' 

2. Complete, Sentence. — 'When morning dawned [depend- 

ent proposition], all fears were dispelled' [principal 
proposition]. 

3. Compound Sentence. — '-Morning having daioned, all 

FEARS WERE DISPELLED; and WE SAW THE LAND 
WITHIN A FEW LEAGUES OF US.' 

Each principal proposition of a Compound Sentence may have one de- 
pendent proposition or several dependent propositions attached to it. Such 
a sentence is a sort of composite compound sentence. Example : ' When 
morning dawned all fears were dispelled ; and we saw the land for which 
we had so eagerly watched within a few leagues of us.' 

NOTES. 

Note I. — The number of propositions in a sentence will be determined 
by the number of verbs it contains. 

Note II. — The kind of any proposition will be determined by the word 
which stands at its head, that is, which introduces it. All proposition sjxl- 

troduced by Eelative Pronouns, or Eelative Adverbs, or Subordinate Con- 
junctions, are Dependent. ~~ 

Note III. — Every sentence must contain one principal proposition at 
least, but may contain any number of principal propositions. 

Note IV. — It must not be supposed that a Simple sentence necessarily 
consists of only a few words. No matter how many qualifying or explan- 
atory terms a sentence may contain, if it has but one subject and one pred- 
icate, it is a Simple sentence. ''Jesus wept' is a Simple sentence contain- 
ing two words j the following is also a Simple sentence, though containing 
sixty-two words : 

'About fourscore years ago there used to be seen sauntering on the 
pleasant terraces of Sans Souci, for a short time in the afternoon, or driv- 
ing in a rapid, business manner on the open roads, or through the scraggy 
woods and avenues of that intricate, amphibious Potsdam region, a highly 
interesting lean, little old man, of alert, though slightly stooping figure. ' — 
Carlyles Frederick the Great. 

Note V. — It may aid the scholar in discriminating between Compound 
and Complex sentences if he remembers that in Compound sentences the 
parts are joined by co-ordinate conjunctions [see T 83] ; in Complex by 
subordinate conjunctions. In Compound sentences the numbers are mere- 
ly put together (cum and pono), while in Complex sentences they are woven 
together (cum and plecto). 



136 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Kinds of Sentences. 

359. Sentences may be thus classified as to the form they 
take — 

1. The Sentence Assertive or Declarative ; as, Gold is yel- 

lovi (affirmative). The man has not come (negative). 

2. The Sentence Interrogative ; &§,Have you any bread? 

3. The Sentence Imperative ; as, Go lack to your place. 

4. The Sentence Exclamatory ; &s,IToio softly the moon 

shines ! 
Note. — The Assertive or Declarative form being the main type of all 
sentences, this form will be used throughout in analysis. The same prin- 
ciples that apply to the Declarative form apply also to all the other forms. 

The Order of a Sentence. 

360. The order of a sentence may be direct or inverted ; 
and in resolving a sentence — that is, in showing the elements 
that enter into its construction — it is necessary to reduce it 
from the inverted to the direct form ; thus : 

Inverted. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

j,. ( The glimmering landscape fades on the sight now ; or, 

irec . ^ r pj ie g]] mmerm g landscape now fades on the sight. 
Inverted. Thee the voice, the dance obey. 
Direct. The voice, the dance obey thee. 
Inverted. Slow melting strains their queen's approach declare. 
Direct. Slow melting strains declare their queen's approach. 

2. Elements of a Sentence. 

361. Every sentence must contain an independent subject 
and an independent predicate. These are the essential ele- 
ments of a sentence. 

362. The Predicate is that part of the sentence that makes 
a statement. 

363. The Subject is that about ivhich the statement is made. 

Note. — By this definition we may always test whether or not an assem- 
blage of words is a sentence. Examples : ' Sailing in a steamer to Eu- 
rope;' 'A design which has never been completed.' The first example 
contains neither subject nor predicate. The second has both subject and 
predicate, but they are not independent, as the relative ' which' converts 
what would otherwise be a principal sentence into a dependent proposi- 
tion. 

364. A Phrase is an element of a sentence not having a 
subject or a predicate, but introduced by a preposition, a par- 
ticiple, or an infinitive. 



SENTENCES. 137 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 'Washington retreated into New Jersey? (Phrase in- 

troduced by & preposition.) 

2. 'Having crossed the Delaware, Washington's army was 

safe.' (Phrase introduced by a participle.) 

3. ' To attack the British was Washington's next object.' 

(Phrase introduced by an infinitive.) 

365. In addition to the essential elements of a sentence, 
there are two subordinate elements — the adjective element, 
and the adverbial element. 

366. An Adjective element may be — 

1. A single word (adjective or noun) ; as, ' Wise men think 

rightly.' 'Milton, the jPoe£, wrote Paradise Lost.' 

2. A phrase; as, 'Men of wisdom think rightly.' 'The 

Secretary of Oliver Cromwell wrote Paradise Lost.' 

3. A clause ; as, 'Men who possess wisdom think rightly.' 

367. An Adverbial element may be— 

1. A single word (adverb) ; as, 'He acts wisely? 

2. A phrase ; as, ' He acts with icisdom? 

3. A clause; as, 'He acts as a wise man should act? 

368. All sentences, however elaborate and lengthy, may be 
resolved into these four elements : 

I. Subject. II. Predicate. 

III. Adjective Element. IV. Adverbial Element. 

3. What the Subject may be. 

369. The Subject of a sentence may be — 

1. A JVbun or a Pronoun ; as, 

* Buckle wrote a History of Civilization.' 
'He was an Englishman.' 

2. A Phrase; as, 

'JVbt to know me argues yourselves unknown.' — Mil- 
ton. 
'Riding on horseback is good exercise.' 

3. A JVbun- Clause ; as,' That the earth is spherical was 

not known by the ancient Greeks;' 'That you have 
wronged me doth appear in this.' — Shakspeare. 



138 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

4. What the Predicate may be. 

370. The Predicate may be either a Complete verb, or an 
Incomplete verb and its complement. 

371. A complete verb makes sense in itself; as, 'Time flies ;' 
'Time will have fled / 'Bread is eaten.' 

In Complete verbs the predicate and the verb coincide ; that is, they are 
one and the same thing. A Complete verb does not necessarily consist of 
a single word. It may be any of the forms of the verb found in its conju- 
gation. Thus will havejled is the future perfect of ' fly.' 

372. An Incomplete verb becomes a predicate by means of 
various kinds of complements. 

For the definition of Complement, review *[f 63. 

373. The complement may be — 

I. The direct object of a transitive verb. 

' ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 'Greene defeated Cornwallis? 

In this sentence it is evident that ' Cornwallis' is an essential part of the 
predicate, as no thought is expressed until we specify whom Greene defeat- 
ed. The same fact holds true of all transitive verbs. 

The complement of a transitive verb is what is usually termed the object. 
Some text-books make it a subordinate element of a sentence. 

2. 'He expected to go to schooV 'He stopped reciting\y 

his lesson? ' /\ 

The first is a phrase introduced by an infinitive ;. the second, a phrase 
introduced by the verbal in -ing, equivalent to an infinitive. 

3. 'Talleyrand said that the purpose of language is to con- 

ceal thought? 
Here the complement is a clause. 
II. There are certain classes of verbs which, in order to 

express their full sense, require an indirect as well as 

a direct object. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 'Murray taught me [indirect object] grammar'' [direct 

object]. 

2. 'The people elected Andrew Jackson [direct object] 

President'' [indirect object]. 

3. 'Columbus told the Council [indirect object] that lie 

coidd sail to the Indies'' [direct object : , clause]. 
When a verb of this class is put in the passive voice, the direct object 
becomes the subject, and the indirect the complement. ' The people elect- 
ed Jackson President ;' 'Jackson was elected President by the people.' 



SENTENCES. 139 

4. 'We expected him to go to schooV 

He was expected to go to school. 
Here * to go to school,' a part of the object, in the active voice, becomes 
the indirect complement of the verb 'was expected,' in the passive. 

5. 'We told him to waif [infinitive, indirect object of 

' told']. 
'He was told to waif [indirect object of was told']. 

III. Various predicate attributes of a subject used with 

the verb ' to be.' 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 'Man is mortaV [complement a predicate adjective]. 

2. 'And the earth was all rest, and the air was all love. 19 — 

Keats. [Here the complements are nouns, termed 
predicate nominatives']. 

3. 'It is she. 9 [Here the complement is a personal pro- 

noun as predicate nominative]. 

4. 'His intention was to go. [Here the complement is a 

phrase], 

5. ' It is probable that he has stolen the money 9 [Here the 

complement is a clause.] 

IV. Various predicate attributes used with neuter verbs, 

other than the verb to be. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. Napoleon became First Consul. 9 [Complement a noun, 

dedicate nominative.] 

2. 'The rose smells sioeet-. 9 [Complement a predicate adjec- 

tive.] 

3. ' He died a natural death. 9 [Complement a noun, death, 

of cognate signification w r ith died.] 

5. How the Subject may be enlarged. 
374. The Subject is enlarged by adjective elements. 

1. By an adjective ; as, 'The little bird sings.' 

2. By a noun in apposition ; as, ' Newton, the philosopher 

[adjective element], discovered the law of gravita- 
tion.' 

3. By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 'The 

ladies 9 [adjective element] dresses were elegant.' 

4. By a phrase ; as, 'The battle of Marathon [adjective 

element] secured the liberty of Greece.' ' The oxy- 



140 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

gen in the air [adjective element] preserves animal 
life.' c The sea, having spent its fury [participial ad- 
jective element], became calm.' 

5. By a clause; as, 'Carbon, ichich is the life of plants 
[adjective element], is destructive to animals.' 

An adjective clause is always connected with the subject by a relative 
pronoun or a relative adverb. 

Exercise 40. 

State by ichat hind of an Adjective Element the Subject is 
enlarged [Adjective word or icords, Adjective phrase, or 
Adjective clause]. 

1 . Good old red wine is the best. 

2. Caesar, having conquered Gaul, sailed over to Britain. 

3. Chaucer, the father of English poetry, wrote the Canterbury Tales. 

4. The invention of the steam-engine has made ocean navigation swift 

and safe. 

5. So ended Hannibal's first campaign in Italy. — Arnold. 

6. The drum's deep .roll was heard afar. 

7. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth 

Of simple beauty and rustic health. — Whittier. 

8. The railroad that connects New York and San Francisco is the longest 

in the world. 

9. The government founded by our fathers will not be broken up by us. 

10. A little old man, dressed in tattered clothes, passed by our door. 

11. Born to inherit the most illustrious monarchy in the world, and early 

united to the object of her choice, the amiable princess, happy in her- 
self, and joyful in her future prospects, little anticipated the fate that 
was so soon to overtake her. 

6. Expansion of the Subject. 

375. Expansion of a subject is the enlargement of its ad- 
jective element from a word to & phrase or from a phrase to 
a clause, without introducing any new idea ; as, 

1. 'A prudent m3n is respected.' [Adjective element — 

Word.] 

2. c A man of prudence is respected.' [Adjective element 

— Phrase.] 

3. 'A man who is prudent is respected.'- [Adjective ele- 

ment— Clause.] 

4. c Shrewd persons are to be found in all nations. ' Shrewd 

persons=persons of shrewdness or giftedwith shrewd- 
??6ss:=: persons who are shrewd, or persons who possess 
shrewdness? 



SENTENCES. 141 

Exercise 41. 
Expand the Words printed in italics into Phrases and 

Clauses. 

1 . Brave soldiers fell at Thermopylae. 

2. The grateful mind loves to consider the bounties of Providence. 

3. Four-legged animals are called quadrupeds. 

4. Great generals [of great ability] were common in the time of Napoleon. 

5. Virtuous men are honored. 

7. How the Predicate may be Enlarged. 

376. The Predicate may be enlarged — 

1. By an adverb ; as, 'Leonidas died bravely? 

2. By a pKrase ; as, ' The sun rises in the morning? 

3. By an adverbial clause ; ' The lawyers smiled that aft- 

ernoon when he hummed in court an old love-tune?— 
Whittier. 

377. The adverbial elements used in enlarging the predi- 
cate may be classified under the following four heads : 

(1.) Those relating to time, or the when word, phrase, or clause. 

(2.) .place, or the where word, phrase, or clause. 

(3.) manner, or the how word, phrase, or clause. 

(4.) .' cause, or the why word, phrase, or clause. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — WORDS. 

1. 'He came up yesterday* — time. 

2. 'He went there* — place. 

3. ' He walks fast* — manner. 

4. ' Why did he go ?' — cause. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — PHRASES. 

1. 6 1?i Spain [place] Columbus waited for seven years* 

[time]. 

2. 'Many travelers in Africa have perished, with terrible 

suffering [manner], from thirst* [cause]. 

3. 'Him the Almighty power 

Hurled headlong [manner] flaming from the ethereal sky, 
'With hideous ruin and combustion [manner], down 
To bottomless perdition? [place]. — Milton. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — CLAUSES. 

1. 'Cromwell matured little events before he ventured to 

govern great ones* [time~\. 

2. ' The gardener is planting the shrubs where they will 

have the most shade* [place]. 



142 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

3. 'Fishes have no voice because they have no lungs' 
[cause]. 

Exercise 42. 

Enlarge the Predicate by an Adverbial Eleme?it—WoB,T>, 

Phrase, or Clause. 

'Violets bloom' — [time]. ' I get up' — [time]. c Liverpool 
is situated' — [place]. ' Scholars study' — [manner]. 
' The balloon rises' — [cause]. ' Rise early' — [cause]. 

378. The object of an incomplete verb may be enlarged in 
all the various ways in which the subject is enlarged (see 
1.374). 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1 . ' The Esquimaux inhabit icy Greenland' [adjective]. 

2. ' The English conquered Ireland, the Emerald Isle [noun in apposition]. 

3. ' In 1864 we celebrated Shakspeare's three hundredth birthday' [noun 

possessive]. 

4. c The battle of Marathon secured the liberty of Greece' [phrase]. 

5. ' Jefferson proposed the decimal notation which is in use in our country 1 

[clause]. 

8. Expansion of the Predicate. 

379. Expansion of the Predicate is accomplished by en- 
larging its Adverbial element from a word to a phrase, or 
from a phrase to a clause, without introducing any new idea. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 'Jenny Lind sang sweetly'' (adverbial element — word). 

2. 'Jenny Lind sang with sweetness' (adverbial element — 

phrase). 

3. c Jenny Lind sang as a sweet singer does' — (adverbial 

element — clause). 

4. ' The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly? ' Re- 

newed yearly^ =.' renewed with every year' =' renewed 
as each recurring year comes round? 

Exercise 43. 
Expand the words printed in italics into Phrases and Clauses. 

1. He came upon me unawares [notice]. 

2. Bees build their hives ingeniously, 

3. Do not speak foolishly. 

4. Leonidas acted heroically. 

5. Columbus sailed confidently [sure of success]. 



SENTENCES. 143 



CHAPTER II. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

1. The Simple Sentence Analyzed. 
380. In analyzing a Simple Sentence proceed as follows : 

I. Name or write the subject of the sentence. ^^ 
By c subject' is meant the grammatical subject, which will be either a 

noun-word or a noun-phrase. 

iglT The Articles a or an and the are to be taken as a part of the subject. 

II. Name or write the Predicate. 

The Predicate will be (1) a verb alone, or (2) an Incomplete verb with 
its complement. 

III. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the 

subject. 
The enlargement of the subject may be an adjective, a possessive noun 
or pronoun, a noun in apposition, or an adjective phrase. It may be any 
one or all of these. 

IV. Name or write the enlargement or enlargements of the 

Predicate. 

(a) The enlargements of the predicate that consists of a Complete verb 
will be (1) an adverb or (2) an adverbial phrase. 

(b) The enlargement of the predicate in which an Incomplete verb is used 
will be (1) an adverb or an adverbial phrase, or (2) an enlargement of the 
complement by one or more of the four forms of the adjective element. 

Models of Analysis. 
Example 1. 
c The hardy Laplander, clad in skins, boldly defies the se- 
verity of his arctic climate.' 

I. Subject i The Laplander.' 

II. Predicate ' defies the severity.' 

III. Enlargement of Subject. . . 'hardy' (adjective), and ' clad in skins' 

(adj. phrase). 

IV. Enlargement of Predicate. ' boldly, ' adverbial enlargement of verb, 

and 'of his arctic climate,' adjective 
enlargement of complement. 

Example 2. 
c Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world.' — Young f s 
Night Thoughts. 

I. Subject ' Night.' 

II. Predicate ' stretches her sceptre.' 



144 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

III. Enlargement of Subject * sable goddess,' adjective element with 

noun in apposition. 

IV. Enlargement of Predicate. ' from her ebon throne,' ' in rayless maj- 

esty,' 'now,' and 'o'er a prostrate 
* world,' adverbial enlargements of 

verb; 'leaden,' adjective enlarge- 
ment of complement ' sceptre. ' 

Example 3. 
€ Him the Almighty Power 
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 
With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
To bottomless perdition.' — Milton! s Paradise Lost. 

(a) Power Subject of Sentence. 

(b) Hurled him Predicate of sentence. 

(c) The Almighty Adjective enlargement of a. 

(d) Headlong Adverbial enlargement of b. 

(e) Flaming Adjective enlargement of 'him,' complement 

of b. 

(f) From the ethereal sky. . .Adverbial phrase, modifying e. 

, x (With hideous ruin > Enlargement ofpred., Adverbial phrase (man- 

^ (And combustion .) ner).. 

(h) Down Enlargement of pred. Adverb (direction). 

(i) To bottomless perdition. .Enlargement ofpred. Adv. phrase (place). 

Example 4. 
To reach Cathay, famed in the writings of Marco Polo, 
fired the imagination of the daring navigator.' 

I. Subject To reach Cathay (noun phrase). 

II. Predicate fired the imagination. 

III. Enlargement of Subject., .famed in the writings of Marco Polo 

(adj. phrase). 

IV. Enlargement of Predicate, of the daring navigator (adj. phrase). 

Example 5. 
c My mother gave me a letter to read.' 

I. Subject Mother. 

II. Predicate gave me (indirect comp.) a letter (di- 
rect comp.). 

III. Enlargement of Subject... adj. element 'my.' 

IV. Enlargement of Predicate. to read (adverbial phrase). 

Example 6. 

'Houses (subject) are built (predicate) to live in' (adverbial enlarge- 
ment of predicate). 

Example 7. 
* How are you ?' 

6 You' (subject) ' are' (predicate) i how' (adverbial enlargement of pred- 
icate). 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 145 

Exercise 44. 
Analyze the following simple Sentences. 

1. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

2. The squirrel eyes askance the chestnuts browning. 

3. The moon threw its silvery light upon the rippling waters of the lake. 

4. The swift- winged swallows twittered in their nests built under the eaves 

of the old barn. 

5. Clad in a robe of everlasting snow,, Mt. Everest towers above all other 

mountain peaks of the globe. 

6. Eeaching the summit of the mountains was a feat hazardous to under- 

take. 

7. In the hereafter angels may 

Roll the stones from its grave away. — Whittier. 

8. Gayly chattering to the clattering 

Of the brown nuts downward pattering 

Leap the squirrels red and gray. — Whittier. 

9. The great work laid upon his twoscore years is done. — Whittier. 

10. There is a rapture on the lonely shore. — Byron. 

11. We w T hile the evening hours away 
Around our camp-fires burning. 

12. Stretched round the fading, nickering light, 
We watch the stars above us. 

13. The master gave his scholars a lesson to learn. 

14. Where are you ? 

15. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. • 

2. Sentence-Building— The Simple Sentence. 

381. In the following exercises in sentence building, each 
element to be included in the sentence is stated as a separate * 
proposition. 

382. The various propositions are to be built up into one 
Simple sentence, introducing into it only such words as are 
necessary fully and clearly to express all the ideas. 

&T Remember that your sentence must contain only one Subject and one 
Predicate. 

383. In working the exercises, use the following method: 

I. Write the Subject on a line by itself. 
• II. Write the Verb on a line by itself. 

III. If the Verb is Incomplete, write the Complement, or Complements, on 

a line by themselves. 

IV. Write the Adjective Elements belonging to the Subject on the same 

line as the Subject ; and the Adjective Elements which modify the 
Noun-object of an incomplete Yerb on the same line as its Predicate. 
V. Write each Adverb or Adverbial Phrase on a line by itself. 

G 



146 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

384. The natural order of the elements in a simple English 
sentence is so plain that it requires no explanation. The only- 
difficulty is in the right placing of the adverbial elements. 

385. Rule.— When you have a number of Adverbs, or of ad- 
verbial phrases, do not string them together at the tail end of 
a sentence, but distribute them in such a way that they will be 
grouped around the principal words. 

Note. — The symbol < stands for enlargement ; P. stands for Predicate; 
S. stands for subject; Comp. for complement. 

Punctuating the Simple Sentence. 

386. Punctuation is indicating by means of points what 
parts of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what parts sepa- 
rated in meaning. 

Rule I. When the elements stand in their natural order — Subject, Pred- 
icate, and Object — no point is required except a period at the close of the 
sentence ; as, ' The morning air is laden with the perfume of the flowers. ' 

Rule II. An adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is gener- 
ally, followed by a comma ; as, ' By night, an atheist half believes there is a 
God.' 

Rule III. Appositional words and phrases following their nouns are 
generally inclosed by comma's ; as, ' Thackeray, the author of Vanity Fair, 
died in 1863.' 

Rule IV. Words and phrases of the same order in a series, taken indi- 
vidually or in pairs, require to be separated by commas. ' A blending of 
all beauties ; streams and dells, fruit, foliage, crag, wood, corn-field, vine.' 
1 Prom grave to gay, from lively to severe. ' 

Rule V. Independent nouns are fenced off" by the comma. ' Sweet Au- 
burn, loveliest village of the plain.' 

Models of Synthesis. 

Example 1. 

1. The Propositions. 

(a) Washington gained a victory. 

(6) Washington was the commander-in-chief of the American army (adj. 
<ofS.). 

(c) The victory was a decisive one (adj. < of object). 

(d) It was gained over the British (adverbial phrase <of P.). 

(e) The battle was fought at Trenton (adverbial phrase). 

(/) Trenton is in the State of New Jersey (adverbial phrase <of e). 
(g) This took place in 1776 (adverb, phrase <of P.). 

2. The Elements. 

Subject Washington, the commander-in-chief of the American 

army. ♦ 

Verb Gained. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 147 

Complement A victory. . .decisive (adj.). 

Adv. Phrase..!. Over the British. 

2. At Trenton, in the State of New Jersey. 

3. In 1776. 

387. As there are three adverbial phrases here, we must 
follow the direction for their arrangement. We therefore 
begin with the adverbial phrase of time ; and get — 

3. The Sentence. 'In 1776, Washington, the commander- 
in-chief of the American army, gained a decisive vic- 
tory over the British, at Trenton, in the State of New 
Jersey.' 

Example 2. 

1. The Propositio?is. 

(a) Sir William Herschel is another example. 

(6) Sir William Herschel was an astronomer (adj. < of S.). 

(c) He is an eminent example (adj. < of S.). 

(d) He is an eminent example of a man raising himself from humble life 

by perseverance (adv.< of comp.). 

2. The Sentence. t Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, is 

another eminent example of a man raising himself 
from humble life.' 

Example 3. 

1. The Propositions. 

(a) A priest made his appearance. 

(6) The priest was fat (adj. < of S.). 

(c) He was an Italian (adj. < of S.). 

(o?) He appeared on deck (adv. phrase <of P.). 

(e) It was soon after breakfast (adv. < of P.). 

2. The Sentence. 6 Soon after breakfast, a fat Italian priest 

made his appearance on deck.' 

Example 4. 

1. The Propositions. 

(a) The caterpillar seeks out some place. 
(6) This is a place of concealment (adj. < of object), 
(c) It does so after a short period (adv. < of P.). 
(o?) It has several times changed its skin (adj. phrase < of S.). 
(e) It has at length grown to its full size (adj. phrase < of S.). 
(/) It secretes itself in some hole in the wall (< of S. ). 
Qj) Or it buries itself under the surface of the ground (< of S.). 
(A) Or sometimes only attaches itself by a silken web to the under side of •• 
a leaf « of S.). 

2. The Sentence. i Having several times changed its skin, 

and having at length grown to its full size, the cater- 



148 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

i 
pillar, after a short period, seeks out some place of 
concealment, secreting itself in some hole in the wall, 
burying itself under the surface of the ground, or 
sometimes only attaching itself by a silken web to 
•the under side of a leaf. 5 

Exercise 45. 
Condense the following Propositions into Simple Sentences. 

1. (a) Steel is made. 

(6) It is made by heating small bars of iron with charcoal. * 

(c) Or by heating them with bone and iron shavings. 

(d) Or with other inflammable substances. 

2. (a) The Russians burned Moscow. 

(6) The French were compelled to leave the city. 

3. (a) I saw the Queen of France. 

(b) It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw her. 

(c) She was then the Dauphiness. 

(d) I saw her at Versailles. 

4. {a) Leonidas sent away all but three hundred men. 

(6) He resolved to defend the pass with this devoted band. 

5. (a) The Highlanders were composed of a number of tribes. 

(b) These tribes were called clans. 

(c) Each clan bore a different name. 

(c?) Each clan lived upon the lands of a different chieftain. 

6. (a) Alfred disguised himself as a page. 

(6) He obtained access to the Danish camp. 

7. (a) The organ is the most wonderful. 

(b) It is the organ of touch that is spoken of. 

(c) It is the most wonderful of the senses. 

(d) It is so in many respects. 

8. (a) A frog one day saw an ox graze in a meadow. 

(b) It imagined it could make itself as large as that animal. 

9. (a) A balloon is a bag. 
(6) It is a thin bag. 

(c) It is a tight bag. 

(d) It is made of varnished silk. 

(e) It is generally shaped like a globe. 

(/) It is filled with a fluid lighter than common air. 

10. (a) Peter III. reigned but a few months. 

(b) Peter was deposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. 

(c) This conspiracy was headed by his own wife, Catharine. 

(d) Catharine was a German by birth. 

(e) Catharine was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. 

11. (a) The Federalists secured the election of John Adams. 
(6) Washington refused to be elected President. 

(c) Adams was a leading member of the Federalist party. 
(g?) He was already distinguished by his political services during the 
Revolution. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 149 



CHAPTER III. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

1. The Complex Sentence Analyzed. 

388. The Complex Sentence consists of a Principal Propo- 
sition and one or more Dependent Propositions. 

389. A simple sentence may be made complex by expand- 
ing one of its elements into a clause. 

390. The Simple Sentence and the Complex Sentence agree 
in one respect, that each contains one, and only one, leading 
assertion ; they differ in this respect, that the complex sen- 
tence contains, in addition to this leading assertion, a subordi- 
nate one made by means of a clause. 

The complete thought expressed by means of a Complex sentence does 
not necessarily differ from that expressed by a Simple sentence ; as, 
Simple Sentence c At the close of the war (phrase), Washington retired 

to Mount Vernon.' 
Complex Sentence.. 4 When the war closed (clause), Washington retired 

to Mount Yernon. ' 

391. Clauses are of three kinds, and are named according 
to the functions they perform in the sentence. 

(1.) Noun clauses, so called because they stand as nouns. 
The noun-clause may be — 

1. The subject of a verb; as, i That you can not perform the task is evident.' 

2. The object of a verb ; as, ' I see that you are exhausted. 1 

Note. — The noun-clause is generally introduced by the conjunction that. 

(2.) Adjective clauses, so called because they perform the 
functions of an adjective; as, 'You will never see the fruit 
of the trees which you are planting ? 

The adjective clause may qualify the subject or the object, and it is gen- 
erally connected with the principal proposition by a relative pronoun or a 
relative adverb, equivalent to the relative pronoun and the preposition gov- 
erning it. The relative may sometimes, however, be understood. 

(3.) Adverbial clauses, so called because they perform the 
functions of an adverb. They qualify verbs, adjectives, or 
adverbs. 

The several kinds of adverbial clauses are — 

1. Time — as, 'I shall see you before you depart. 1 

2. Place — as, 'I found him where I had left him. 1 

3. Manner — as, 4 The gardener works as he pleases. 1 



150 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

4. Comparison or degree — as, ' Gold is more precious than silver. 9 

5. Cause — as, 4 1 was scolded because I had committed a mistake. 

6. Effect — as,' The cold was so intense that the mercury froze. 1 

7. Condition — as,' I will not let thee go unless thou bless me.'' 

8. Concession — as,' Though I entreated him with tears,he would not grant 

my request. ' 

9. Purpose— as, ' The gardener prunes the tree that it may yield better fruit.' 

392. Some of these conjunctions may introduce a noun 
clause or an adjective clause as well as an adverbial clause; 
the nature and relationship of the various clauses must there- 
fore be carefully examined in order to determine whether 
the clause has the function of a noun, of an adjective, or of an 
adverb. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1. 6 I will tell you where to find it! 1 

Here the clause ' where to find it' is an objective complement of tell; it 
must therefore be a noun. 

2. i I will show you the spot ichere he was standing? 

Here the clause ' where he was standing' is a complement of the noun 
sjgot ; it must therefore be an adjective. 

3. 'They were still lying where they fell? 

Here the clause ' where they fell' is a complement of the verb were lying; 
it must therefore be an adverb. 

393. The different kinds of clauses in Complex sentences 
can be distinguished by the connectives that introduce them. 
The following classified table of connectives is given to aid 
the pupil in distinguishing a clause from the principal mem- 
bers of a sentence. 

Introducing, ( 1. Fact — that what, why. 

I. Noun Clauses, < 2. Alternative — whether. . .or. 

Used as subject or object. ( 

i' 1. Person — who, that. 
i S^wSSein. 
4. Time — when, whereat. 

I. Place. Where, whether, whence. 
II. Time. When, while, whenever, till, until. 
( 1. Likeness — as, as if. 

III. Mannek. < 2. Comparison — as (much) as, than. 

' Clause of 1 ' B ' Effect — ( s0 ) that - . 

1. Reason— because, since, for. 
J 2. Purpose— (in order) that, lest. 

IV. Oatjse. < 3 Condition _if; un i ess# 

[4. Concession — though. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 151 

394. In analyzing a complex sentence, pick out first the 
subject and the predicate of the leading or most important 
statements : these make the backbone of the sentence. Next 
select the subordinate statement or statements, introduced 
in all cases by some one of the connectives given in the table 
above. 

395. Or, reverse the above process by first picking out the 
clauses. This can be readily done, since they always imme- 
diately follow some one of the connectives given above. All 
that is left in a simple sentence, or in any single member of a 
compound sentence, will belong to the principal proposition. 

Directions for the Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

I. Name-or write the subject of the leading member. 
II. Name or write the leading predicate. 

III. Name or write the enlargement of the subject. 

IV. Name or write the enlargement of the predicate. 

V. Name or write the subject of the dependent proposition. 
VI. Name or write the predicate of the dependent proposition. 
VII. Name or write the enlargement of its subject. 

VIII. Name or write the enlargements of its predicate (verb and comple- 
plement). 

Model of Analysis. 
Example 1. 
' Washington, who beheld all day, with unspeakable an- 
guish, the useless slaughter of his brave troops, skill- 
fully withdrew his army, which was dispirited by de- 
feat, from Long Island to New York, at night, under 
cover of a dense fog. 5 

1. Washington Subject. 

2. Withdrew his army Predicate. 

3. Who beheld all day, with unspeakable anguish, the useless slaughter of 

his brave troops (adj. clause <of S.). 

4. (a) Which was dispirited by defeat (adj. clause <of comp. of P.). 
4. (6) From Long Island to New York (adv. phrase <of P.). 

4. (c) At night (adv. phrase <of P.). 

4. (d) Under cover of a dense fog (adv. phrase <of P.). 

First Clause, 

1. Who, connective and S. 

2. Beheld the slaughter, predicate. 

3. (a) All day (adv. phrase <of P.)-. 

3. (6) With unspeakable anguish (adv. phrase <of P.). 

3. (c) Useless (adj. <of object). 

3. (d) Of his troops (adj. < of Comp. of P. ). 



152 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Second Clause. 

1. Which Subject and connective. 

2. Was dispirited Predicate. 

3. By defeat (adv. phrase <of P.). 

Example 2. 
c The ocean is as deep as the mountains are high.' 

1. The ocean (S.). 

2. Is deep (P.). 

3. As (adverbial <of comp. of P.). 

4. As the mountains are high (dependent proposition, adverbial <of P.). 

Analysis of Dependent Proposition. 

1. Mountains (S.). 

2. Are high (P.). 

3. As, connective of clause. 

Example 3. 

396. The following is an example of a peculiar type of the 
Complex Sentence: 

'That you have wronged me [clause-subject] doth appear 
[P.] in this' [adverbial <of P.]. 

Note. — In this sentence the sense shows that the subject of the princi- 
pal member, or the main statement, is the entire clause ' That you have 
wronged me.' As the clause is usually a subordinate part of either the 
subject or. the predicate of a complex sentence, there seems to be an ap- 
parent contradiction in making it the subject of the main statement ; but 
the construction is similar to that by which a phrase, usually subordinate, 
sometimes becomes itself the subject of a sentence, or the complement of 
the predicate. 

Example 4. 

397. Another example of the same type is the following : 

4 We must not think that the life of a man begins w T hen 

he can feed himself.' 
Explanation. — Here the complement of the transitive verb 'must 
think' is ' that the life of man begins when he can feed himself. ' 

Example 5. 
'It is believed that the moon is not inhabited.' 
Explanation. — Here the real subject is the clause 'that the moon is 
not inhabited ;' but it is represented by the pronoun ' it' in its peculiar idi- 
omatic use (see % 48). 

Example 6. 
' I wish to know where you live.' 

1. I (S.). 

2. Wish to know (P.). 

3. Where you live (noun-clause, object of ' know'). 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 153 

Analysis of 3. 
(l)'You'(S.). 

(2) live (P.). 

(3) where (adv. < of P.). 

Example 7. 

' He is proud that he is a soldier.' 

Explanation. — Here the clause 'that he is a soldier' expresses the 
reason, the why of his being proud, and is therefore an adverbial clause 
modifying the predicate 'is proud.' 

Example 8. 
'Tell me how you are.' 

1. Subject — t You' (understood). 

2. Predicate — 'tell how you are' ('how you are,' noun-clause, comple- 

ment of transitive verb tell). 

3. (to) me (indirect comp. of tell). 

Example 9. 
'A reader unacquainted with the real nature of a classical 
education will probably undervalue it when he sees 
that so large a portion of time is devoted to the 
study of a few ancient authors, whose works seem to 
have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of 
our own generation.' 

. A reader unacquainted with the real ] 

nature of a classical education > Principal Proposition. 
will probably undervalue it ) 

2. A reader Principal Subject. 

3. Unacquainted with the real nature ) Adjective phrase, enlargement of 

of a classical education J subject. 

4. Will undervalue it Principal Predicate. 

5. Probably Adverbial enlargement of pred. 

6 When he sees that o-eneration { De P endent proposition, an adverb- 

b. w nen ne sees tnat generation j ial cLmge qualifying pred# 

Analysis of Dependent Proposition. 

1. He , Subject. 

2. Sees Predicate. 

3. That so large a portion of time is ] 

devoted to the study of a few / 

ancient authors [clause a], whose I Complement of incomplete verb 

works seem to have no direct bear- ( 'sees. ' 

ing on the studies and duties of \ 

our own generation [clause b] . . . J 

1. Portion Subject of clause a. 

2 Of time 1 ac U ectrve phrase qualifying { por- 

| tion.' 

3. Is devoted to authors, .predicate of clause a. 

G2 



154 



ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 



To the study of a few ancient au- ) indirect complement of ' is de- 

thors ) voted. ' 

Whose works seem to have no direct ) -,. ,. , /ZA v - . £ 

bearing on the studies and dnties [ **££» clause ® q^Mymg ' au- 

of our own generation J 

Works subject of clause b. 

Seem to have no bearing predicate of b. 

On the studies and duties of our ) adverbial phrase modifying predi- 

own generation j cate of b. 



Example 10. 
395. A convenient mode of. tabular analysis is given in the 
following model : 

TABULAR ANALYSIS. 



Propositions. 


Kinds. 


Subject. 


PREDICATE. 


Verb. 


Complement. 


Enlargement. 


I. Before Time 
had touched his 
hair with silver, 


Adverbial 
Clause to 
II. 


Time 


had 
touched 


his hair 


with silver. 


II. He had often 
gazed with wist- 
ful fondness to- 
ward that friend- 
ly shore, 


Principal 
Proposi- 
tion. 


He 


had gazed 




1. often {Time). 

2. with wistful 
fondness {Man- 
ner). 

3. toward that 
friendly shore 
{Place). 


III. On which 
Puritan huts 
were already be- 
ginning to cluster 
under the spread- 
ing shade of hick- 
ory and maple. 


Adjective 
Clause to 
II. 


Puritan 

huts 


were be- 
ginning 


to cluster 


1. already «o/ 
Verb). 

2. under the 
spreading shade 
of hickory and 
maple «o/ 
Obj.). 



Exercise 49. 



Analyze the following Complex Sentences : 

1. Whom the gods love die young was said of you.— Byron. 

2. Beware when the great gods let loose a thinker on this planet. - 



-Em- 



's. If we confine our view to the globe we inhabit, it must be allowed that 
chemistry and geology are the two sciences which not only offer the fairest 
promise, but already contain the largest generalizations. — Buckle's History 
of Civilization. 

4. In the latter part of his life, when impressed with the sublime events 
brought about through his agency, Columbus looked back upon his career 
with a sublime and superstitious feeling. He attributed his early and irre- 
sistible inclination for the sea to an impulse from the Deity preparing him for 
the high decrees he was chosen to accomplish. — Washington Irving. 

5. Mrs. Squeers stood at one of the desks, presiding over an immense basin 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 155 

of brimstone and treacle, of which delicious compound she administered a 
large instalment to each boy in succession, using for the purpose a common 
wooden spoon, which might have been originally manufactured for some 
gigantic top, and which widened every young gentleman's mouth consider- 
ably, they being all obliged, under heavy, corporal penalties, to take in the 
whole of the bowl at a gasp. — Dickens s Nicholas Nickleby. 

6. When public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when 
great interests are at stake, and strong passions excited, nothing is valuable 
in speech further than it is connected with high intellectual and moral endow- 
ments. — Daniel Webster. 

7. We know that if we could cause this structure to ascend, not only till it 
reached the skies, but till it pierced them, its broad surfaces could still con- 
tain but part of that which, in an age of knowledge, hath already been spread 
over the earth, and which history charges itself with making known to all fu- 
ture times. — Daniel Webster. 

8. A man who, exposed to all the influences of such a state of society as 
that in which we live, is yet afraid of exposing himself to the influence of a 
few Greek or Latin verses, acts, we think, much like the felon who begged the 
sheriffs to let him have an umbrella held over his head from the door of New- 
gate to the gallows, because it was a drizzling morning, and he was apt to 
take cold. — Macaulay. 

9. If the feudal government was so little favorable to the true liberty even 
of the military vassal, it was still more destructive of the independence and 
security of the other members of the state, or what, in a proper sense, we call 
the people. — Hume. 

10. I covered it with skins, the hair upwards, so that it cast off the rain like 
a pent-house, and kept off the sun so effectually that I could walk out in the 
hottest of the weather with greater advantage than I could before in the cool- 
est, and when I had no need of it I could close it and carry it under my arm. 
— Defoe s Robinson Crusoe. 

11. You have a very bad opinion indeed of the present state of literature, 
and of literary men, if you fancy that any one of us would hesitate to stick a 
knife into his neighbor penman if the latter's death could do the state any 
service. — Thackeray's Book of Snobs. 

12. But when the sun broke from the underground, 
Then those two brethren, slowly, with bent brows, 
Accompanying the sad chariot-bier, 

Passed like a shadow through the field that shone 

Full summer, to that stream whereon the barge 

Palled all its length in blackest samite lay. — Tennysoris Elaine. 

13. If I could stand for one moment upon one of your high mountain tops, 
far above all the kingdoms of the civilized world, and there might see, com- 
ing up, one after another, the bravest and wisest of the ancient warriors, and 
statesmen, and kings, and monarchs, and priests ; and if, as they came up, I 
might be permitted to ask from them an expression of opinion upon such a 
case as this, with a common voice, and in thunder tones, reverberating through 
a thousand valleys, and echoing down the ages, they would cry, i Liberty, 
Freedom, the Universal Brotherhood of Man!' — Colonel Baker. 

14. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 



156 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with anoth- 
er, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal sta- 
tion to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent 
respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes 
which impel them to the separation. — Declaration of Independence, 

B. 
Change the following Inverted Complex Sentences into the 

REGULAR ORDER I 

1. Whilst light and colors rise and fly, 

Lives Newton's deathless memory. — Mitford. 

2. In man or woman, but far most in man, 
And most of all in man that ministers 
And serves the altar, in my soul I loathe 
All affectation. — Cowper. 

3. If Hannibal had not wintered at Capua, by which circumstance his troops 

were enervated, but, on the contrary, after the battle of Cannae, had 
proceeded to Rome, it is not improbable that the great city would have 
fallen. — Gibbon, 

4. Time but this impression deeper makes, 

As streams their channels deeper wear. — Burns. 

2. Sentence-Building— The Complex Sentence. 

398. In combining Propositions into a Complex Sentence, 
observe the following directions : 

1. You must take care to make clauses stand as close as 

possible to the words they qualify. 

2. An adjective clause must follow the noun which it 

qualifies. 

3. An adverbial clause generally follows the word it mod- 

ifies ; but it is often more elegant to make certain 
adverbial clauses — especially those of time, place, 
concession, condition — precede the word they qual- 

4. A noun-clause used as subject must generally stand be- 

fore the verb ; used as the complement of a transi- 
tive verb, after it. 

399. General Rule. — Arrange the clauses so as to bring 
ont most clearly and unmistakably the complete sense of the 
sentence. 

Punctuation of Complex Sentences. 

400. Rule I. — In complex sentences, the clauses are gen- 
erally separated from the principal member and from one 
another by commas. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 



157 



Rule II. — If, however, one clause stands in very close con- 
nection with another, no comma is necessary. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

c When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward became a 
distinguished statesman and philosopher, learnt his 
trade in the printing-office of his brother, who pub- 
lished a paper in Boston.' 

Explanation. — The clause, ' When he was a boy,' is separated from the 
principal proposition, 'Franklin learnt his trade,' by a comma. In like 
manner, the comma is used to separate the clause ' who afterward became 
a distinguished philosopher' from the subject ' Franklin, ' for the reason that 
this clause intervenes between the principal subject, 'Franklin,' and the 
principal predicate, ' learnt his trade. ' So the clause ' who published a pa- 
per,' etc., is separated by a comma from the antecedent of who, namely, 
'brother.' 

Model of Synthesis. 

Example 1. 

I. Propositions to be combined into a Complex Sentence. 

1 . Benjamin Franklin learnt his trade (principal proposition). 

2. He did this when he was a boy (adv. clause <of P.). 

3. He afterwards became a distinguished statesman and philosopher (adj. 

clause <of S.). 

4. He learnt his trade in his brother's printing-office (adv. clause <of P.). 

5. His brother published a paper in Boston (adj. clause <of brother). 

II. These Propositions may be conveniently expressed on 
the blackboard by means of the following diagram : 

principal subordnate 

Proposition. ■ Propositions. 

He did this when 
he was a boy. 

He afterwards be- 
came a distinguished 
statesman and phi- 
losopher. 

He learned his 
trade in the printing- 
office of his brother. 

His brother pub- 
lished a paper in 
Boston. 

III. Propositions Combined. 
' When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward became a 

distinguished statesman and philosopher, learnt his 



Franklin 
learnt his 
trade. 




158 



ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 



trade in the printing-office of his brother, who pub- 
lished a paper in Boston.' 
Note.— The method of punctuating this sentence is explained p. 157. 

401. In framing the diagram, write the principal proposi- 
tion on the left; the subordinate propositions on the right. 
When a clause qualifies some word in the principal member, 
it is to be joined to the principal member by a straight line, 
on which the nature of the clause is indicated. If a word in 
one of the dependent propositions is enlarged by another 
clause, draw a line (on which you will indicate the nature of 
the clause) from the latter to the former, and not to the line 
running from the principal member. 

The sign -f- may be used to signify and. # The sign — is used to signify 
or. The sign -f- may be used to signify but. 



Principal 
Proposition. 



Example 2. 







Subordinate 
Propositions. 
They admire him 
very much. 

They imitate him 
in every thing. 



Young lads 
often fix on 
some older 
boy. 

Sentence Constructed. 

' Young lads often fix on some older boy whom they ad- 
mire very much, and whom they imitate in every thing.' 

Note. — The first clause is too closely connected with the principal mem- 
ber to take the comma. 



Principal 
Propositions. 

Water ex- 
pands into 
steam. 



Example 3. 




Subordinate* 
Propositions. 
Water is heated. 

Steam endeavors 
to force its way out 
of the vessel. 

It is confined in 
the vessel. 

Sentence Constructed. 

i Water that is heated expands into steam, which endeav- 
ors to force its way out of the vessel in which it is con- 
fined. 

Note. — In this sentence, the clause 'that is heated' is too closely joined 
to 'water' to be separated from it by a comma. The relative clause ' which 
endeavors,' etc., is, however, separated by a comma. The last clause, 'in 
which it is confined, ' is too closely united with the word vessel, in the pre- 
vious phrase, to admit of separation. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 



159 



(a)The^ 
vast ma- 
chines 
struck the 
Indians 
with such 
terror. 



Principal Example 4. Subordinate 

Proposition. Propositions. 

The Spaniards had 
traversed the ocean in 
these machines (6). 

The machines seem- 
ed to move upon the 
waters with wings (c). 

The machines utter- 
ed a dreadful sound re- 
sembling thunder (d). 

The Indians began 
to suspect their new 
guests to be a superior 
order of beings (e). 

They concluded 
something (f). 

The Spaniards were 
the children of the 
sun 0). 

The children had 
descended to visit the 
earth (h). 

Sentence Constructed. 

'The vast machines in which the Spaniards had traversed 
the ocean, and which seemed to move upon the waters 
with wings, and uttered a dreadful sound resembling 
thunder, struck the Indians with such terror that they 
began to suspect their new guests to be a superior or- 
der of beings, and concluded that the Spaniards were 
children of the sun, who had descended to visit the 
earth.' 

Note.— Take notice of the manner in which this sentence is punctuated. 




Exercise 50. 

Condense the following Propositions into Complex Sen- 
tences : 

1. (a) The merino sheep is a native of Spain. 
(b) Pine cloth is made from its wool. 

2. (a) Tea was unknown in this country a few centuries ago. 
(b) We could now scarcely dispense with it. 

3. (a) The city of Rome is situated on the River Tiber. 
(6) The city is about sixteen miles distant from the sea. 

4. (a) The sea-dikes in Holland are generally about thirty feet in height. 
(hi) They are erected all along the coast. 



160 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

5. (a) Charles V. was the most renowned of all the emperors of German)^. 
(6) He abdicated the throne. 

(c) He retired to a convent. 

6. (a) The Spaniards were beginning to despair. 

\b) The eagle eye of Cortez had been keenly surveying the whole field 
of battle. 

(c) He saw where the sacred banner of Mexico was borne aloft in tri- 
umph. 

7. (a) Caesar might not have been murdered. 

(6) Suppose Caesar had taken the advice of the friend, 
(c) The friend warned him not to go to the senate-house on the Ides 
of March. 

8. (a) The world is^of this opinion. 

(b) The end of fencing is to hit. 

(c) The end of medicine is to cure. 

(d) The end of war is to conquer. 

9. (a) The heat was so great. 
(6) We were living in Italy. 

(c) We were obliged to remain in darkened rooms during several hours 
of the day. 
10. (a) The lion was magnificent to behold. 

(b) He was standing with his cheek against the grating of his cage. 

(c) He was attempting to break down the obstacle. 

(d) This obstacle separated us. 

(e) He shook the wall of his cage with roars of rage. 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

1. The Compound Sentence Analyzed. 
402. A Compound Sentence contains two or more Principal 
Propositions ; as, 'Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Alps and 
descended into the plains of Italy ;' c Man proposes, but God 
disposes.' 

NOTES. 

Note I. — A Compound Sentence may consist of two or more principal 
propositions, or it may be made up of two or more complex members. In 
the latter case, the sentence may be termed composite compound, but it is 
definite enough for our purpose to consider such a sentence compound. 

1 . All that I have, and all that I am, and all that I hope, in this life, I am 

now ready here to stake upon it ; and I leave off as I began, that, live 
or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. — Webster. 

2. The evil that men do lives after them ; 

The good is oft interred with their bones. — Shakspeare. 
Note II. — Table of Conjunctions, Adverbs, and Adverbial Phrases used 
to connect the Propositions of Compound Sentences. 
f And, also, likewise,- again, besides. 

Copulative •< Moreover, farther, furthermore, both and also. 

(Not only. . . .but, then,. too (following another word). 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 161 

(Either or. 

Disjunctive •< Neither nor, nor (in the sense of and not). 

(Otherwise, else. 

[ But, on the other hand, but then. 

\ Only, nevertheless, at the same time. 
Adversative < However, notwithstanding. 

J On the one hand, on the other hand, conversely. 

( Yet, still, for all that. 

{Therefore, thereupon, wherefore. 
Accordingly, consequently. 
Hence, whence, so then, so then, and so. 
For, thus. 

Note III. — The adverbial connectives are frequently joined with a con- 
junction proper to form a connection between propositions ; as, ' The town 
was badly defended, and therefore became a prey to the enemy. 

Note IV. — The connectives of the propositions of compound sentences 
are frequently omitted for rhetorical effect. 

Models of Analysis. 
Example 1. 
c Read this declaration at the head of the army : every 
sword will be drawn from its scabbard, and the sol- 
emn vow uttered to maintain it, or to perish on the 
bed of honor.' 
This is a compound sentence consisting of three principal 
propositions, of which the subjects and the predicates are as 
follow : 

1. Subject 'You' [understood] ; 'read this declaration [predicate]. 

2. sword [subject] ; will be drawn [predicate]. 

3. vow [subject] ; (will be) uttered [predicate]. 

*** The sub-analysis of the principal propositions may be given accord- 
ing to the previous models for simple sentences. 

Example 2. 
c The theory of the Mohammedan government rests upon 
the maintenance of a clear separation from the un- 
believers; and to propose to a Mussulman of any 
piety that the Commander of the Faithful should 
obliterate the distinction between Mohammedans 
and Christians would be proposing to obliterate the 
distinction between virtue and vice; the notion 
would seem to be not merely wrong and wicked, but 
a contradiction in terms.' 
This is a compound sentence consisting of four principal 
propositions : 



162 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

1. The theory [$.] rests [P.]. 

2. To propose that the Commander of the Faithful should obliterate the 

distinction 08.]. .would be proposing to obliterate the distinction [P.]. 

3. The notion [S.]. .would seem to be wrong and wicked [P.]. 

4. [ 4 The notion' understood S.] [' would seem to be' understood] a contra- 

diction [P.]. 

5. 'That the Commander of the Faithful should obliterate,' etc., is a de- 

pendent proposition, complement of ' to propose. ' 

Contracted or Elliptical Compound Sentences. 

403. It often happens that different portions of a compound 
sentence have the same subject, or the same predicate, or the 
same enlargements of either, or of both. If these common 
elements are not repeated, the sentence is contracted or ellip- 
tical. 

illustrations. 

1. ' God sustains and (God) governs the world.' 

2. 'Either a knave (must have done this) or a fool must. 

have done this.' 

3. 'The trade winds (are permanent) and the monsoons 

are permanent.' 

4. ' The air expands (by heat) and (the air) becomes light 

by heat.' 

5. 'Frogs and seals live on land and on water'=to four 

simple sentences : 1. Frogs live on land. 2. Frogs 
live in water. 3. Seals live on land. 4. Seals live 
in water. 

6. ' Men should not talk to please themselves, but (men 

should talk to please) those that hear them.' — Steele. 

7. i Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor (do) iron bars (make) a cage.' — Lovelace. 

8. ' Some books are to be tasted, others (are) to be swal- 

lowed, and some few (are) to be chewed and (some 
few are to be) digested.' — Bacon. 

9. 'That loss is common would not make 

My own less bitter, rather (it would make my loss) 
more (bitter).' — Tennyson. 

10. 'Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; 

And he (is) but naked, though (he be) locked up in steel, 
Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.' — Shak- 
speare. 

11. 'But the monarchy did not come, nor (did) the aristoc- 

racy (come), nor (did) the Church, as an estate of the 
realm' (come). — Webster. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 163 

12. "Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 

And ('tis distance that) robes the mountains with its 
azure hue. 5 

13. A variety of contractions may be combined in one sen- 
tence, as follows : 

• ' With every effort, with every breath, and with every 
motion — voluntary or involuntary — a part of the 
muscular substance becomes dead, separates from 
the living part, combines with the remaining por- 
tions of inhaled oxygen, and is removed.' 
Here there are four predicates, having but one subject, and three en- 
largements of these predicates distinct from one another. To express the 
entire meaning of the sentence in separate propositions, we should bare 
first to repeat the subject with each predicate, making four simple sentences, 
and then repeat each of those sentences with each of the enlargements, 
making twelve propositions in all. 

Exercise 51. 
A. 

Analyze the following Compound Sentences: 

1. Men's evil manners live in brass : their virtues we write in water. 

2. I love Freedom : I will speak her words ; I will listen to her music ; 

I will acknowledge her impulses ; 1 will stand beneath her flag ; I 
will fight in her ranks ; and, when I do so, I shall find myself sur- 
rounded by the great, the wise, the good, the brave, the noble of 
every land. — E. D. Baker. 

3. I have seen Freedom in history again and again ; with mine own eyes 

I have watched her again and again struck down on a hundred 
chosen fields of battle. 

4. I have seen her friends fly from her ; I have seen her foes gather around 

her ; I have seen them bind her to the stake ; I have seen them 
give her ashes to the winds — regathering them again that they 
might scatter them yet more widely ; but when her foes turned to 
exult, I have seen her again meet them face to face, resplendent in 
complete steel, and brandishing in her strong right hand a flaming 
sword, red with insufferable light. — E. D. Baker. 

5. Nature has, indeed, given us a soil which yields bounteously to the 

hands of industry ; the mighty and fruitful ocean is before us, and 
the skies over our heads shed health and vigor. — Daniel Webster. 

6. We do not, indeed, expect all men to *be philosophers or statesmen, but 

we confidently trust, and our expectation of the duration of our 
system of government rests on that trust, that by the diffusion of 
general knowledge, and good and virtuous sentiments, the political 
fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and overthrow 
as against that slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. — 
Webster. 

7. No man can suffer too much, and no man can fall too soon, if he suf- 



164 ANALYSIS AND CONSTBUCTTON. 

fer or if he fall in defense of the liberties and constitution of his 
country. 

8. The arts, sciences, and literature of England came over with the set- 

tlers ; the jury came ; the habeas corpus came ; the testamentary 
power came ; and the law of inheritance and descent came also, 
except that part of it which recognizes the rights of primogeniture, 
which either did not come at all, or soon gave way to the rule of 
equal partition of estates among children. — Webster. 

9. On a sudden, open fly 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds 
The infernal doors ; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder. — Milton. 

10. It (Bacon's Philosophy) has lengthened life ; it has mitigated pain ; 
it has extinguished diseases ; it has increased the fertility of the 
soil ; it has given new securities to the mariner ; it has furnished 
new arms to the warrior ; it has spanned great rivers and estuaries 
with bridges of form unknown to our fathers ; it has guided the 
thunderbolt innocuously from heaven to earth ; it has lighted up 
the night with the splendor of the day ; it has extended the range 
of the human vision ; it has multiplied the power of the human 
muscles ; it has accelerated motion ; it has annihilated distance ; 
it has facilitated intercourse, correspondence, all friendly offices, 
all dispatch of business ; it has enabled men to descend to the 
depths of the sea, to soar into the air, to penetrate securely into the 
noxious recesses of the earth, to traverse the land in cars which 
whirl along without horses, and the ocean in ships which run ten 
knots an hour against the wind. — Macaulay s Essay on Lord Bacon. 

[Compound Sentence of 19 propositions and 163 words.~\ 

B. 

Change the following inverted Compound Sentences into their 
common order: 

1 . Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. — Milton. 

2. 'Twas in autumn, and stormy and dark was the night, 
And fast were the windows and doors. — Southey. 

C. 

Supply the Ellipsis in the following Sentences: 

1. But what are lands, and seas, and skies to civilized man, without so- 

ciety, without knowledge, without morals, without religious culture ? 
and how can these be enjoyed, in all their extent, and all their excel- 
lence, but under the protection of wise institutions and a free govern- 
ment ? — Webster. 

2. Some place their bliss in action, some in ease ; 
These call it pleasure, and contentment these. 

3. All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou canst not see ; 
AH discord, harmony not understood ; 
All partial evil, universal good. — Pope. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 165 

4. Man never is, but always to be bless'd. — Pope. 

5. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. 

6. Beading makes a full man ; speaking a ready man ; writing a correct 

man. 

2. Sentence-Building— Compound Sentences. 
404. In working the following exercises in compound sen- 
tence building, the pupil is to proceed in the same manner as 
in the construction of simple and of complex sentences. The 
only additional fact is the connection of the principal propo- 
sitions. The proper connectives to be used will be indicated 
in each exercise. 

Punctuation of Compound Sentences. 
Rule I. The rules of Punctuation for Simple Sentences 
and for Complex Sentences apply to Simple and to Complex 
Clauses in Compound Sentences. 

Rule II. Principal propositions are generally separated 
by a semicolon / as, 4 The genius making me no answer, I 
turned about to address myself to him a second time ; but I 
found that he had left me. 5 

Rule III. When the propositions are simple, and neither 
of them contains a comma within itself, a comma may be used 
to separate them ; as, ' Every man desireth to live long, but 
no man would be old.' But if the connective is omitted the 
semicolon must be used. 

Rule IV. In contracted sentences, the omissions within 
the propositions are indicated by commas ; as, 'To err is hu- 
man ; to forgive, divine. 5 

Rule V. The semicolon is the peculiar mark of the com- 
pound sentence.. It is never used in any other kind of sen- 
tence. 

Models of Synthesis. 
• Example 1. 
Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

iThe distance was about a mile and 
a half [adv. < of P.]. 
He was on horseback [adv. <of P.]. 
He returned to the camp [adv. <of P.]. 
(cop. and) He was faint with the loss of blood [adj. 

phrase <of S.]. 
He called for a drink. +He was probably parched with thirst, 

owing to the heat of the weather 
[adj. phrase <of S.]. 



166 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Sentence Constructed. — 6 Sydney returned about a mile and 
a half on horseback to the camp, and, faint with the 
loss of blood y and probably parched with thirst, owing 
to the heat of the weather \ he called for a drink.' 

Example 2. 
Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

( [ He set off on my approach [adv. <of P.]. , 

\ He set off full tilt [adv. <of P.], 
The buffalo again set J He heaved himself forward with a heavy rolling 
off. \ gallop [adj. phrase <of S.]. 

/ +He dashed with precipitation through brakes 
(cop. while) [ and ravines [adj. phrase <of S.]. 

!They were startled from their coverts by his thun- 
dering career [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
They ran helter skelter [adv. <of P.]. 
They ran to right and left [adv. <of P.]. 
They ran across the prairie [adv. <of P.]. 

Sentence Constructed. — c On my approach, the buffalo, heav- 
ing himself forward with a heavy rolling gallop, and 
dashing with precipitation through brakes and ra- 
vines, again set off full tilt, while several deer and 
wolves, startled from their coverts by his thunder- 
ing career, ran helter skelter, right and left, across 
the prairie.' 
Note. — Observe the peculiar use of the conjunction while. Though 
while is ordinarily a subordinate connective, it is here a co-ordinate con- 
nective, being equivalent to and at this time. In like manner, when is a co- 
ordinate connective when it means and at this time, and where is so also 
when it means and at this place. 

Example 3. 
Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

)The meteor was little [adj. <of S.]. 
The meteor was blazing [adj. <of S.]. 
It shot at this moment [adv. <of P.]. 
It shot like a glowing coal of fire [adv. <oFP.]. 
It shot across the iglen [adv. <of P.]. 
(cop.) fit was the first time I had seen it [adv. <of P.]. 

I saw it with admiration and astonishment [adv. < 

of P.]. 
The gem was resplendent [adj. <of comp.] ; 
The gem was living [adj. <of comp.]. 
It was the humming-bird [adj. < by apposition of 
. P.l 
Constructed Sentence. — At this moment a little blazing 
meteor shot across the glen like a glowing coal of 
fire, and, as it was the first time that I had seen that 



< 



I saw that gem. < 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 



167 



resplendent living gem, the humming-bird, I saw it 
with admiration and astonishment. 



Principal Propositions. 
I did not choose to trust 
the sea again, 
(ad vers, but) 
I preferred a mode. 

(illat. therefore) 
I applied to a nurseryman 
near me. 
(cop.) 
I was received. 



Example 4. 



< 



Enlargements. 



(It was another mode [adj. <of comp. of P.]. 
"(It was a mode of living [adj. phrase <of P.]. 



I was to be a day laborer [pred. nominative, 
comp. of P.]. 



Constructed Sentence. — c I did not choose to trust the sea 
again, but preferred another mode of living ; I there- 
fore applied to a nurseryman near me, and was re- 
ceived as a day laborer. 5 

Note. — Observe the mode in which this sentence is punctuated. There 
is so close a connection between the member, ' I did not choose,' etc., and 
'but preferred,' etc., that the comma is sufficient separation. The suc- 
ceeding member, 'I therefore applied,' etc., is, however, so dissevered in 
sense as to require the semicolon. The last member is fenced off by the 
comma. 

Exercise 52. 

Construct Compound Sentences out of the following principal 
Propositions and Enlargements : 

Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

'A crocodile infested f Its size was prodigious [adj. phrase <of S.]. 
the banks of the \ Its fierceness was uncommon [adv. phrase <ofS.]. 
Nile. 1 

(cop.) j The desolation was through all the neighboring 

'it spread desolation. ( country [adv. phrase <ofP.]. 

Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

(He finds them in his subterranean explorations 

m. . - , \ [adv. phrase < of P. 1. 

The miner finds 

corals. 



2. < 



•i They are imbedded in the rocks [adj. phrase <of 
J comp. of P.]. 
"(illative, so that) ( In the bowels of the earth [adj. phrase < of 'rocks'], 
f The connection is not a necessary one [adj. <of 
Fossil remains have ) comp. of P.]. 

no connection. i It is a connection with the present distribution of 
( sea and land [adj. phrase < of comp. of P.]. 



168 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

Principal Propositions. Enlargements. 

f 1. They were wedged in amongst the 
The sentinels were wedged in. | crowd [adv. phrase <of P.]. 

<( 2. Who endeavored to prevent the peo- 



3. 1 



(cop.) 



An officer was compelled to 
retire. 



(illative, for.) 



The people would not be de- 
barred from gazing. 



pie from trespassing on the par- 
apet [adj. clause <of S.]. 

3. He was compelled to retire rapid- 

ly [adv. < of P.]. 

4. Who ordered the sentinels to drive 

the people down with their bay- 
onets [adj. clause < of S.]. 

5. He ordered the sentinels not very 

prudently on such an occasion 
[adv. phrase < of P. of 4]. 

6. Until the last moment [adv. phrase 

<ofP.]. 

7. Upon the hero [adv. phrase < of 

gazing]. 



5. Principal Propositions and Enlargements. 

A. We prepare to meet the blow. 

(cop.) 

B. We think to ward off the blow. 

(dis. conj. or) 

C. We think to break the force of the blow. 

1. When the blow is coming [adv. <of P. of A, B, C]. 

D. We arm ourselves with patience to endure. 

2. What can not be avoided [noun-clause, object of 'to endure']. 

E. We agitate ourselves with fifty needless alarms about it. 

F. But the pang is over. 

(cop.) 

G. And the struggle is no longer necessary. 

3. When the blow is struck [adv. clause of time, < of F, G]. 

(cop.) 
H. We cease to harass ourselves more about the blow. 

4. Than we can help [adv. clause of comparison]. 

Contraction and Expansion of Sentences. 

405. In addition to the exercises previously given in the 
analysis and in the construction of sentences, it will be found 
both a pleasing and a profitable drill to contract complex sen- 
tences into simple ones, and compound sentences into com- 
plex sentences. 

406. By a little artifice, a compound sentence may be re- 
cast into a complex sentence, and the complex sentence again 
may be worked down into a simple sentence, while in each 
substantially the same idea is expressed. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 169 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

'The sea spent its fury, and then it became calm.' 

Explanation.' — This is a compound sentence. It consists of two prin- 
cipal propositions connected by ' and. ' You will notice that each proposi- 
tion has, so to speak, the same rank. 

The plan for converting this compound sentence into the complex form 
is to reduce the rank of one of the principal propositions by turning it into 
a clause introduced by a connective that will cause it to hang or depend on 
the other. Doing this, we have the following complex sentence : 

'The sea became calm when it had spent its fury,' or, 
c When the sea had spent its fury it became calm.' 

Explanation. — These are complex sentences. You will notice that 
what was originally a principal proposition, ' the sea spent its fury, ' appears 
now in the form of a clause introduced by the connective adverb 'when,' 
and that this adverb subordinates it to the remaining principal proposition. 

The plan for reducing this complex sentence to the form of a simple sen- 
tence is to boil down the clause into a phrase. [Re-read the definition of 
a phrase, % 364, and remember that a phrase can have neither subject nor 
predicate.] Condensing the clause into a phrase, we have the following 
simple sentence : 

'The sea, having spent its fury, became calm,' or, 
' Having spent its fury, the sea became calm,' or, 
6 The sea became calm, having spent its fury.' 

Explanation. — These sentences fully answer to the definition of a sim- 
ple sentence, each having but one subject, ' sea, ' and but one predicate, i be- 
came calm. ' ' Having spent its fury' is a phrase introduced by the participle 
' having spent. ' 

407. Substantially the same idea is expressed in each of 
these sentences ; but notice the different effect of the several 
ways of putting the idea. 

408. In the compound sentences we have two principal 
propositions on the same level and of equal importance. In 
the complex form, one of the propositions is reduced to the 
level of a mere attendant circumstance, ' when it had spent 
its fury,' while the proposition,' the sea became calm,' stands 
out in bold relief, and is the leading statement. 

409. In the simple form, the attendant circumstance is still 
further reduced in importance by ceasing to be a proposition 
at all, and by becoming a mere adjective phrase. 

The varying effect produced by these changes may be compared to the 
foreground, middle ground, and background of a picture. 

410. Expansion is the reverse of contraction. 

H 



170 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

'At the conclusion of the battle, the commander began to 

estimate his loss' — simple sentence. 
4 When the battle teas concluded, the commander began to 

estimate his loss' — complex sentence. 
4 The battle had been concluded, and then the commander 
began to estimate his loss' — compound sentence. 
411. There are various minor ways of treating a series of 
sentences so as to put them in better shape. The following 
paragraph will illustrate some of these: 

The lion is found in Africa. The lion is found in Asia. During the day 
the lion slumbers in his retreat. Night sets in. The lion then rouses him- 
self from his lair. The lion then begins to prowl. In general, the lion 
waits in ambush. The lion sometimes creeps toward its victim. The lion 
seizes its victim with its powerful claws. 

Combined thus : 

The lion is found in Africa and Asia. During the day he slumbers in 
his retreat ; but when night sets in he rouses himself from his lair and be- 
gins to prowl. In general, he waits in ambush. Sometimes, however, he 
creeps toward his victim', and seizes it with his powerful claws. 

Exercise 53. 
A. 

Contract the following Compound Sentences into Complex 
Sentences, and then, if possible, into Simple Sentences: 

1. The light infantry joined the main body, and the British troops retreat- 

ed precipitately into Boston. 

2. He was a worthless man, and he could not command the respect of his 

neighbors. 

3. Egypt is a wonderfully fertile country, and it is annually overflowed by 

the River Nile. 

4. The earth is round, and no one doubts it. 

5. The house was very large, and consequently there was little comfort in 

it. 

B. 

Contract the following Complex Sentences into Simple Sen- 
tences : 

1. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 

2. When morning began to dawn, our ship struck on a sunken reef near 

the rock-bound coast. 

3. It may be easily shown that the earth is round [the rotundity of]. 
5. It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 171 

C. 

Expand the following Simple Sentences into Complex Sen- 
tences : 

1 . Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable. 

2. The ancients believed the earth to be the centre of the universe. 

3. With patience, he might have succeeded. 

4. The utility of the telegraph is evident to all. 

5. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 

D. 

Contract the following Paragraphs into Complex Sentences: 

Note. — Use proper conjunctions and relatives, and do not let the word 
and recur too often. 

1. England abounds in fine pastures. 
England abounds in extensive downs. 

These pastures and downs feed great numbers of sheep. 

2. The Highlanders Were composed of a number of tribes. 
These tribes were called clans. 

Each clan bore a different name. 

Each clan lived upon the lands of a different chieftain. 

3. The cuckoo builds no nest for herself. 
She lays in the nests of other birds. 

She does not lay indiscriminately in the nests of all birds. 

4. The pitcher-plant is a native of the East Indies. 
The pitcher-plant has mugs or tankards. 
These are attached to its leaves. 

They hold each from a pint to a quart of very pure water. 

5. A young girl had fatigued herself one hot day. 
It was with running about the garden. 

She sat herself down in a pleasant arbor. 
She soon fell asleep. 

6. Steel is made. 

It is made by heating small bars of iron with charcoal. 

Or by heating them with bone and horn shavings. 

Or with other inflammable substances. 

By this heating the metal acquires a finer grain. 

It acquires a more compact texture. 

It becomes harder. 

It becomes more elastic. 

7. Augustus Caesar has been called a great prince. 
Louis XVI., of France, has been called a great prince. 
But, deprive both of their crown, 

They will both dwindle into obscure characters. 
They will both dwindle into trivial characters. 

8. Beyond the Mississippi are vast prairies. 
These prairies are covered with grass. 

Great herds of buffalo roam over these prairies. 
Great herds of deer roam over these prairies. 



172 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

E. 

Throw each series of Simple Sentences into one Expanded 

Sentence. 

Note. — The sentences made must be Simple, i. e., they must have but 
one finite verb. 

1. The boy fell. The boy was little. It was a ditch he fell into. The 
ditch was dry. It was this morning that he fell in. 

2. The river overflowed. The river was the Thames. The banks were 
overflowed. It was in November. It was on the 15th of that month. On 
both sides it was overflown. 

3. A boy came. The boy was pretty. He was little. He was blue-eyed. 
He had rosy cheeks. It was his mother he came to. The boy had a rabbit. 
It was a young one. It was white. It was lop-eared. He carried it in his 
pinafore. 

4. Leonidas died. Leonidas was a king. He was King of Sparta. Three 
hundred of his countrymen died with him. They died like heroes. It was 
at Thermopylae they died. They died to defend their country. They were 
defending their country against the Persians. 

5. John signed. John was a king. It was a document called Magna 
Charta that he signed. John was afraid of his barons. He did not care 
about liberty. He signed it at Runnymede. Runnymede is on the Thames. 
It is not far from Windsor. 

6. The boy wrote. He was a good boy. He wrote a letter. He wrote 
to his father. * He wrote from school. He wrote on his birthday. It was a 
long letter. He wrote it early in the morning. He wrote it before breakfast. 

F. 

Employ the methods of Contraction and the various minor 
ways spoken of in ^f 411, so as to reduce the Sentences of the 
following Paragraphs into better shape : 

1 . The polar bear is of a white color. It is found in the arctic regions. 
It leads almost entirely an aquatic mode of life in these regions. Its body is 
long. Its head is flat. Its muzzle is broad. Its mouth is peculiarly small. 
The paws are very large. They are covered on the under side with coarse 
hair. From the coarse hair it derives security in walking over the slippery 
ice. The fur is long. The fur is woolly. It is of fine texture. It is of 
considerable value. 

2. A crow was ready to die with thirst. He flew with joy to a pitcher. 
He saw the pitcher r„t a distance. He came up to it. He found the water 
very low. With all his stooping he was unable to reach it. Upon this he 
attempted to break the pitcher. He attempted to overturn it. His strength 
was not sufficient to do either. At last he saw some pebbles at hand. He 
dropped a great many of them into the pitcher. He dropped them one by 
one. In this way he raised the water up to the brim. He quenched his 
thirst. Learn a lesson from this. Skill succeeds. Patience succeeds. Force 
often fails. 

3. A traveler was pursuing his way along a narrow road. The road was 
bordered on the one hand by a steep hill. It was bordered on the other by 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 173 

the River Ganges. All at once he saw a grim-looking tiger. It was rush- 
ing down the hill-side toward him. In order to escape the ravenous beast, 
he was on the point of plunging into the river. At that moment a crocodile 
popped up his head above the water. The traveler was overcome with horror. 
He sank to the ground. At the same instant the tiger made a great spring. 
It fell between the jaws of the crocodile. The crocodile dispatched the for- 
midable beast. During the struggle the man escaped. 

Miscellaneous Exercises in Sentence-Building. 

A. 

Vary the expression in the following Simple Sentences : 

Ex. Of all countries in the world, Arabia produces the 
most beautiful horses. 

1. No country in the world can compete with Arabia for 
the beauty of its horses. 

2. For the production of beautiful horses Arabia carries 
away the palm from all other countries in the world. 

3. The horses reared in Arabia excel in beauty those of any 
other country in the icorld. 

1 . The elephant surpasses all land-animals in size and strength. 2. The 
young of all animals receive pleasure simply from the exercise of their bodily 
faculties. 3. A boundless and extraordinary prospect opened from the sum- 
mit of the great Pyramid. 4. The size of the largest mountain is very trifling 
compared to the whole earth. 5. Our woolen dress is the product of the joint 
labor of a great many workmen. 6. The mariner's compass does not seem to 
have been used for navigation in Europe before the year 1420. 7. Persuasion 
has ever been deemed better than force. 8. The warm climate of Ceylon is 
tempered by the sea-breezes. 9. The whole community of bees pays the most 
respectful attention to the queen. 

B. 

Compose Simple Sentences out of the following Statements: 

Ex. (1.) James Watt died on the 25th of August, 1819. 

(2.) This event took place at Heathfield, near Birmingham. 
(3. ) Watt had a seat at Heathfield. 
(4.) Watt was the great improver of the steam-engine. 
(5. ) He was eighty-four years of age. 
James Watt, the great improver of the steam-engine, died on the 25th of Au- 
gust, 1819, at his seat of Heathfield, near Birmingham, in the eighty-fourth 
year of his age. 

1. The Turks assaulted Constantinople. 
The assault took place by sea and land. 
The assault took place at daybreak. 

The customary signal of the morning gun was omitted. 

2. Our little habitation was situated at the foot of a sloping hill. 
A beautiful underwood sheltered it behind. 

A prattling river ran before it. 
A meadow was on one side. 
A green was on the other. 



174 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

3. The Federalists secured the election of John Adams. 
Washington refused to be re-elected President. 
Adams was a leading member of the Federalist party. 

He was already distinguished by his political services during the Revo- 
lution. 

4. The Russians were advancing on their left to the brow of the hill. 
Their pace was an easy gallop. 

They were evidently picked soldiers. 

Their light blue jackets were embroidered with silver lace. 

5. We descried a herd of buffaloes. 

The herd was about two miles distant. 

We cast our eyes about the surrounding waste. 

The herd was quietly grazing near a small strip of bushes. 

6. The crew got safe to land. 

The land was a desolate and barren island. 

The crew had been enduring extreme suffering for three weeks. 

Their suffering was unrelieved even by hope. 

7. The great battle of Lutzen ended in victory to the Swedes. 
The date of the battle was the 6th of November, 1662. 
The leaders were Wallenstein and Gustavus. 

The Swedes gained the victory at the expense of the life of their heroic 
king. 

8. William Tyndale printed the first edition of the New Testament in En- 

glish. 
Tyndale was an accomplished linguist. 

Tyndale had conceived the design of translating the Scriptures. 
This translation was printed at Antwerp. 
Its date was the year 1526. 

C. 
Alter the folloicing Simple Sentences into Compound: 

Ex. Having crossed the Alps, I can quite corroborate your opinion. 
I have crossed the Alps, and can quite corroborate your opinion. 

1. The Rhone, flowing into the Lake of Geneva, emerges from it at the town 

of that name. 

2. The cadi having caused each plaintiff to repeat the story, neither varied 

one jot from his original statement. 

3. In consequence of his carefulness and devotion to the interest of his em- 

ployers, he rapidly rose in his profession. 

4. After a thousand years of fruitless effort, the source of the Nile has only 

of late been discovered by Livingstone. 

5. During the storm of the following night the vessel sank. 

6. Overcome with fatigue, the weary traveler sank down to rest. 

7. By diligent and persevering exertion, the young artist at length accom- 

plished his design. 

8. The coral insect, barely possessing life, is hourly creating habitations for 

man. 

9. Robinson Crusoe was very much surprised at seeing the print of a man's 

foot in the sand. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 175 

D. 

Combine the following Elements, each set into a Compound 

Sentence : 
Ex. The captain had a large piece of boiled meat by him. 
The captain withheld his aid. 
This selfishness was detestable. 
The captain had a large piece of boiled meat by him^ but with detestable 
selfishness he withheld his aid. 

1. He possessed quick perceptions. 
He observed accurately. 

He was able to place his right hand on the right animal. 
He did so without hesitation. 

2. Pope was not content to satisfy. 
He desired to excel. 

He therefore always endeavored to do his best. 
He did not court the candor of his reader. 
He dared his judgment. 
He expected no indulgence from others. 
He showed none to himself. 

3. Steam has increased indefinitely the mass of human comforts. 
Steam has increased indefinitely the mass of human enjoyments. 
Steam has rendered cheap the materials of wealth and prosperity. 
Steam has rendered accessible the materials of wealth and prosperity. 
It has done so all over the world. 

4. The river passes through the populous cities. 
The river passes through the busy haunts of men. 
It tenders its services on every side. 

It becomes the ornament of the country. 
It becomes the support of the country. 

5. Ivanhoe extricated himself from his fallen horse. 
Ivanhoe was soon on foot. 

He hastened to mend his fortune with his sword. 
His antagonist rose not. 

6. In Paris the Templars had got possession of a tract of ground. 
This tract was equal to one third of the whole city. 

They covered it with towers. 

They covered it with battlements. 

Within the fortress they lived a life of most luxurious self-indulgence. 

The fortress was unapproachable. 

7. After a few rounds the columns of the square became broken. 
The columns wavered to and fro. 

They broke. 

They fled over the brow of the hill. 

They left behind them six or seven distinct lines of dead. 

These lines lay very close to each other. 

These lines marked the passage of the fatal messengers. 

8. The electric telegraph* was invented by Professor Morse. 
Professor Morse was an American. 

The telegraph has greatly facilitated business. 

It has done so by bringing all parts of the world into communication. 



176 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

E. 

Alter the following Simple and Compound Sentences into 

Complex : 

Ex. 1. I never saw so pleasing a bird. 

/ never saw a bird that pleased me so. 
2. The Jordan rises in Lebanon and flows into the Dead Sea. 
The Jordan, which rises in Lebanon, flows, etc. 

1. I suppose the birds to be sand-pipers. 2. In getting down the bank to 
reach one of them, I heard something plunge into the water near me. 3. A 
body consisting of any one substance can not be decomposed. 4. In collect- 
ing honey, bees do not confine themselves solely to flowers. 5. The moisture 
in the upper regions being cooled down, the water falling from it solidifies. 
6. The mode of ascent has been frequently described, and yet it does not ap- 
pear to be generally understood. 7. The extent of their contemplated pro- 
cedure against the monarchy can never be known, Pym and Hampden hav- 
ing died early. 8. The amalgamation of race was carried on in the East, and 
not less so in the West. 9. Gesler, to try the temper of the Swiss, set up the 
ducal hat of Austria on a pole in the market-place of Altdorf. 

F. 
Combine the Statements in each Paragraph into a Com- 
plex Sentence: 

Ex. They resolved upon making a couple of lances to defend themselves 
against the white bears. 

They did not know how to procure arrows at present. 
The white bears are far the most furious of their kind. 
They had great reason to dread their attacks. 

Not knowing how to procure arrows at present, they resolved upon making a 
couple of lances to defend themselves against the white bears, far the most fe- 
rocious of their kind, whose attacks they had great reason to dread. 

1. Out of this clay they found means to form a utensil. 
This utensil might serve for a lamp. 

They proposed to keep it constantly burning with the fat of animals. 
They might kill the animals. 

2. Washington was sometimes engaged in labors. 

The children of wealthy parents would now account these labors se- 
vere. 
He thus acquired firmness of frame. 
He thus acquired a disregard of hardship. 

3. Tin is a metal. 

Ancient Britain was most famous for tin. 

The Phoenicians were first induced to visit Britain for tin. 

4. More than half a century ago, London began to be lighted with gas. 
This was the first attempt to introduce it into the streets and buildings 

of a city. 
One or two inhabitants had so lighted their houses some years earlier. 

5. A little fern pushed her head through the ground. 
This was on a bright May morning. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 177 

The fern was ready to begin unrolling her head. 

She first looked around. 

This course became a wise fern. 

6. He spoke to the king like a rough man. 
I think this myself. 

He was a rough, angry man. 
He did nothing more. 

7. Coal in particular was-never seen except in certain districts. 
Coal was produced in certain districts. 

Coal could be carried by sea to certain districts. 

Coal was indeed always known in the south of England by the name 
of sea-coal. 

8. Certain species of quadrupeds are provided with soft glossy coverings. 
These coverings bear the name of fur. 

It is chiefly the smaller species of quadrupeds. 

These coverings are found in the greatest perfection in the coldest 

countries. 
They are most wanted in such countries. 

9. The ingenuity of man has made a lever of the wind. 
The lever spares him an immensity of toil. 

This lever is applied to machinery. 
10. The Spaniards were surrounded by many of the natives. 
The Spaniards were thus employed. 

The natives gazed with silent admiration upon their actions. 
They could not comprehend these actions. 
They did not foresee the consequence of these actions. 

G. 

Construct a Narrative out of the following facts, introduc- 
ing the several kinds of Sentences: 

Cotton. 
Cotton is a white substance. Cotton grows in the seed-pod of a plant. It 
is gathered from the pod. It is cleaned out from the seed. It is sent to the 
manufacturer. The manufacturer* makes it by the help of machinery into 
thread or yarn. He also makes it into cloth. Cotton is used very exten- 
sively as material for clothing. Its combination of warmth and lightness fits 
it for a great variety of climate. Its cheapness brings it within reach of the 
poorest. It is grown largely in India and Egypt. The finest kind is ob- 
tained from America. 

Iron. 
Iron may be said to be the most useful of metals. It is employed in all the 
more important processes of human labor. We are largely dependent on it 
for carrying on the business of life. We are largely dependent on it for en- 
joying the comforts of life. The plow is made of iron. We turn up the 
ground witn the plow. Boilers are made of it. We prepare our food in bdfl- 
ers. Pens are made of it. We write with pens. Railways are made of it. 
We travel on railways. Iron is employed in three states. Cast-iron is so 
called from being cast in moulds. Cast-iron is used for railing, pots, and 
grates. Wrought-iron is so called for being wrought by the hammer. This 

H2 



178 ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

process gives it greater consistency. Wrought-iron is used for railways. 
Wrought-iron is used for all articles where toughness is required. Steel is 
iron tempered so as to become very hard and fine. Steel is used for edged 
tools and fine instruments. The most useful metal is also the most abundant. 
This is a happy circumstance that Britain abounds in iron. The principal 
mines are in Staffordshire, Wales, and the west of Scotland. 

The Wind and the Sun. 

A dispute once arose between the wind and the sun which of them is the 
stronger of the two. They agreed to decide it by this consideration. One of 
them would sooner make a traveler lay aside his cloak. He was to be ac- 
counted the more powerful. The wind blew a blast with all its might and main. 
This blast was cold as a Thracian storm. This blast was fierce as a Thracian 
storm. He blew stronger. The traveler wrapped his cloak closer about him. 
He grasped it tighter with his hands. The sun then broke out. With his 
welcome beams he dispersed the vapor. With his welcome beams he dis- 
persed the cold. The traveler felt the genial warmth. The sun shone bright- 
er and brighter. The traveler sat down. The traveler was overpowered with 
the heat. The traveler cast his cloak on the ground. 



PART IV. 

ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

e Grammar is a means ; composition, the end.' — Angm. 

I. Suggestions for Teachers. 

There are few things that are more difficult to teach suc- 
cessfully than is composition-writing. After the pupil has 
acquired some knowledge of grammatical forms, and some 
skill in analyzing sentences, the art of composing still lies 
beyond. 

The good old-fashioned way of requiring scholars " to write 
a composition once a month," on random subjects chosen by 
themselves, does not tend to give great skill " in the art of 
writing the English language." It is certain that every child 
leaving public school at thirteen years of age ought to be 
able to write at least a business letter neatly and correctly, 
if not elegantly ; it is equally certain that comparatively few 
pupils can do this. 

The art of teaching elementary composition-writing can 
not well be reduced to any very definite rules. It will de- 
pend to a very great extent on the good sense and the tact 
of teachers in adapting simple exercises to the capacity of 
the pupils under instruction. 

The following suggestions may prove of some practical 
value : 

Direction I. — Train pupils to correct one another's compo- 
sitions. 

Undoubtedly one reason why so few composition exercises are required 
in school is the drudgery of correcting them. A teacher having a class of 
say forty scholars can not carefully correct one set of exercises in less than 
five or six hours, and of all tasks that of correcting the compositions of be- 
ginners is the most thankless. By allowing the members of a class to in- 
terchange their exercises, the whole work of correcting and criticising may, 
under the direction of the teacher, be done in the school-room in half an 
hour. To any pupil, reading, correcting, and criticising the composition 
of a schoolmate will be quite as valuable a drill as the original labor of 
writing one. The first attempts may be rather awkward, but after a few 
trials the corrections will be definite enough for all practical purposes. 



180 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Direction II. — Require pupils to rewrite every corrected 
composition. 

Direction III. — After the rewritten composition is criti- 
cised, it should be copied a third time. 

But little attention will be paid to corrected errors unless the pupil is 
made to rewrite the exercise. For the sake of avoiding this extra labor, 
pupils will soon learn to write with care. 

Direction IV. — Show your pupils how to divide a composi- 
tion into paragraphs, and require them to put every exercise 
into paragraphs. 

Direction V. — Require pupils to carefully punctuate compo- 
sitions, at least to the extent of using periods and commas. 

Direction VI. — If you would have pupils acquire either 
readiness or skill in the use of written language, require 
them to write some kind of a composition at least once a 
week ; or, better still, a short exercise twice a week. 

Direction VII. — As a general rule, assign and explain some 
subject, and require the whole class to write upon it. 

Direction VIII. — Do not select abstract subjects for be- 
ginners. 

Direction IX. — Never assign a subject that the pupils know 
nothing about. 

Direction X. — For a few months the work of any class not 
trained to write should consist of exercises in writing from 
memory short stories out of the Readers, in writing abstracts 
of history or geography lessons, in writing imaginary letters, 
in writing simple descriptions of familiar scenes or objects, 
and in converting poetry into prose. Occasionally the pupils 
should be allowed to select their own subjects, and to exer- 
cise their own imagination and taste in their own untram- 
meled manner. 

II. Suggestions for Pupils. 

Direction I. — When your subject is assigned, think it over 
carefully, and map out in your mind some kind of a plan. 

Direction II. — Do not attempt to write on a subject that 
you know nothing about. 

Direction III. — Do not run together a string of propositions 



SUGGESTIONS. 181 

connected by conjunctions and relative pronouns into long, 
straggling sentences, but, as a general thing, write short sen- 
tences, each expressing a complete thought. And whenever 
you have written a very long and involved sentence, break it 
up into two or three brief and clear sentences. 

Direction IV. — Do not use several words to convey what 
may be expressed by one word. 

Direction V. — After you have written the first draft of 
your exercise, go carefully over it, correct, cross out, inter- 
line, condense, and then recopy it. 

Direction VI. — In correcting, examine in reference to the 
following points: 

1. Spelling. 

2. Capital letters. 

3. Correct use of words. 

4. Grammatical construction. 

5. Punctuation. 

6. Division into paragraphs. 

7. Condensation ; strike out every word, phrase, and clause that you can 

without destroying the thought to be expressed. 

Direction VII. — Whenever you make any marked change, 
or any new turn in the thought to be expressed, denote it by 
a new paragraph. 

Direction VIII. — Acquire the habit of punctuating your sen- 
tences as you write them, 

Direction IX. — Whenever you find much difficulty in com- 
pleting a long sentence, you may be certain that you do not 
clearly understand what you want to express. 

Direction X. — If you find great difficulty in writing about 
any particular subject, you may be certain that you do not 
clearly understand it. 

Direction XL — The greatest charm of all writing is natu- 
ralness ; hence do not be afraid to express your own thought, 
so far as matter goes, just as you would speak it out to a 
friend. 

Direction XII. — Never delay beginning your composition 
until the day on which you are required to have it ; if you 
do so, your exercise will in all probability be a failure. 



182 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

3. Review of Capitalizing and Punctuation. 

Cardinal Rule. 

*HT To the Pupil. — Commit this rule to memory, and practice it till its 
application becomes as natural to you as breathing. 

Begin every declarative sentence with a capital letter, and 
close it with a full stop. 

Capitals. 

Write every Proper Name, and every adjective derived from 
a Proper Noun (as English, American), with an initial capital. 

Write the pronoun I in a capital. 

When you introduce a direct quotation in a sentence (that 
is, when the very words of the speaker or writer are given), 
begin the quotation loith a capital. 

Commas. 
Mark off co-ordinate words and phrases — such as the words 
in a string of nouns, adjectives, or verbs — by means of com- 
mas ; as, May she reign over a free, a happy, and a religious 
people. 

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave. 

Mark off adverbial phrases at the beginning of sentences by 
commas y as, On the following morning, Napoleon attacked 
the enemy. 

Mark off participial phrases, and independent and apposi- 
tional constructions, by commas y as, Relying on promised aid, 
Paul Jones attacked the Serapis. Mr. President, I did not in- 
tend to speak this evening. Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, 
was born at Tarsus. 

Mark off parenthetical clauses by commas; as, The project, 
it is certain, will succeed. 

Mark off the clauses of a loosely-connected compound sen- 
tence by commas y as, This rumor runs through the crowd in 
a moment, and fills them with dismay. 

As a general thing, mark off the subordinate propositions in 
complex sentences by commas y as, In a moment ten thousand 
persons, who crowded the great hall, replied with a shout. 

Mark off independent adverbs and conjunctions — such as 

HOWEVER, MOREOVER, BESIDES, INDEED, LASTLY, CERTAINLY — 

by commas. 



CAPITALIZING AND PUNCTUATION. 183 

Finally, do not use the pepper-box of commas too 

FREELY. 

Semicolons. 
Separate by semicolons the members of a loosely-connected 
compound sentence, especially members that hinge on a 'but? 
Straws swim on the surface ; but pearls lie on the bottom. 

Separate by semicolons the different propositions that are 
strung together ; without connectives, into a compound sentence. 
The pride of wealth is contemptible ; the pride of learning is 
pitiable ; the pride of dignity is ridiculous ; but the pride of 
bigotry is insupportable. 

Observation. — Many authors would very properly make each of these 
propositions an independent sentence, and put full stops after each. 

The Colon. 
Probably the pupil will rarely have occasion to use the co- 
lon, so he need not puzzle his head about the niceties of its use. 

The Dash. 
The dash is used to denote abruptness, to show that a signifi- 
cant p>ause is intended, or an unexpected change in the senti- 
ment ; as, Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 
Who sometimes counsel taks't, and — sometimes tea. 

$^° The less the young writer employs the dash in his early composi- 
tions, the better. 

The Parenthesis. 
The parenthesis is used to inclose words that do not enter into 
the construction of the sentence, but that are inserted for expla- 
nation or for reference; as, "Your honor," continued Trim, 
" might sit in your arm-chair (pointing to it) this fine weather." 
Observation. — The dash very easily takes the place of the parenthesis. 
The young writer will do well to employ the parenthesis as little as possi- 
ble. It is often only a lazy mode of doing what would have been done bet- 
ter in a regular sentence, with some little alteration of the construction. 

Point of Interrogation. 

Use this mark at the end of a question; as, Where are you ? 

This mark must not be employed when it is only said that 

a question was asked ; as, ' She inquired where I lived. 5 The 

interrogative form might be employed thus : She said to me, 

" Where do you live ?" 

Observation. — Note in the last sentence that 'Where do you live?' is 
introduced as a direct quotation, and hence the first word has an initial 
capital. 



184 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

Point of Exclamation. 
This mark, sometimes called the note of admiration, is used 

to emphasize a sentence expressing strong or sudden feeling. 

Hence most interjectional words and phrases take this mark; 

as, How noble an action ! Alas ! poor Yorick ! 

Observation. — Silly letter- writers sometimes stand up three or four of 
these marks after a single sentence — genuine 'notes of admiration' of their 
own conceit. Look through twenty pages of a pure and powerful writer 
like Macaulay, and see if you can find one of these signs of the forcible- 
feeble. 

Quotation Marks. 

Inverted commas, either single or double, are used to inclose 
a word, phrase, or sentence that is quoted, or to mark that you 
are using the very words of a speaker ; as, "What a wonder- 
ful piece of work is man !" exclaims Shakspeare. 

If the quotation is interrupted by an expression of the 
c said he' sort, each part of the quotation is inclosed by the 
marks of quotation, and the interrupting expression is fenced 
off by commas ; as," I have lived," said the old man, " a great 
many years in poverty." 

General Observation. — From these rules you see that 
punctuation, leaving out its niceties, is really not a difficult 
matter at all. There is no set way of punctuating. If one 
has a method founded on sense, and is consistent with this 
method, no more can be asked. However, if you begin every 
sentence with a capital letter, end it with its appropriate ter- 
minal mark, and separate by commas those obviously sepa- 
rate parts that you would divide by slight pauses in speak- 
ing, your punctuation will not be very bad. When you have 
learned this much, all the rest will come to you by practice. 

4. Outline of Exercises in Composition-Writing. 

Combine the Sentences in the following Paragraphs so as to form a connected 

Narrative : 

Exercise I. 

An old man was on the point of death. He called his sons to his bedside. 
He ordered them to break a bundle of arrows. The young men were strong. 
They could not break the bundle. He took it in his turn. He untied it. 
He easily broke each arrow singly. He then turned toward his sons. He 
said to them, Mark the effect of union. United like a bundle, you will be in- 
vincible. Divided, you will be broken like reeds. 

One way of combining. 
An old man on the point of death called his sons to his bedside, and or- 



OUTLINE OF EXEKCISES IN COMPOSITION-WRITING. 185 

dered them to break a bundle of arrows. The young men, though strong, 
being unable to do so, he took the bundle in his turn, untied it, and easily 
broke each arrow singly. Then turning toward his sons, he said to them, 
Mark the effect of union. United like a bundle, you will be invincible j di- 
vided, you will be broken like reeds. 

Another mode of combining. 

An old man, being on the point of death, called his sons to his bedside, and 
ordered them to break a bundle of arrows. Strong as they were, they were 
unable to break this bundle ; so he took it in his turn, and, having untied it, 
easily broke each arrow singly. Turning toward his sons, he said to them, 
" United, you can not be overpowered ; divided, you will be broken as easily 
as reeds. " 

Note. — No two scholars will hit upon exactly the same form of expres- 
sion. Pupils must try to combine in their own way. 

Exercise II. 

Early History of France. 
France was anciently called Gaul. It was conquered by Julius Caesar. 
After that the inhabitants adopted the manners of the Komans. Gaul was 
next invaded by the Franks. They were of German origin. From these 
people the country derives its present name. Pharamond was king of the 
Franks. He was the founder of the French monarchy. Clovis was a still 
more famous warrior. He made Paris his capital. Before his time the 
Franks were pagans. Clovis embraced Christianity. Charlemagne was the 
greatest of the Carlovingian kings. He lived between the eighth and ninth 
centuries. He made conquests in Germany, Spain, and Italy. He founded 
the temporal power of the Pope. 

One way of combining. 

After France, which was anciently called Gaul, was conquered by Julius 
Caesar, the inhabitants adopted the manners of the Eomans. The Franks, a 
people of German origin, next invaded Gaul, and from them the country de- 
rived its present name. Pharamond, king of the Franks, was the founder of 
the French monarchy. Clovis, one of his successors, and a still greater war- 
rior, embraced Christianity, and made Paris his capital. Before his time the 
Franks were pagans. Charlemagne, the greatest of the Carlovingian kings, 
made conquests in Germany, Spain, and Italy, and founded the temporal pow- 
er of the Pope. He lived between the eighth and ninth centuries. 

Exercise III. 

The Hot Springs of Iceland. 
Hot springs abound in Iceland. The most celebrated are the Geysers. 
They lie in gently sloping ground at the foot of a hill, in a tract rilled with 
numerous hot springs. The columns of steam from these springs rise into 
the atmosphere. They may be seen at the distance of miles. Near this tract 
rises a large circular mound. This mound is formed by the depositions of 
the Great Geyser, an intermitting fountain. This fountain throws out water 
at certain intervals. The diameter of the basin is fifty-six feet in one direc- 
tion. It is forty-six in another. There is a pipe in the centre seventy-eight 
feet in depth, with a diameter of from eight to ten feet. From this pipe col- 
umns of hot water are projected with amazing velocity. The columns are sur- 



186 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

rounded by steam. They rise as high as seventy feet. These jets are accom- 
panied by loud reports. They resemble the discharge of a park of artillery. 

Exercise IV. 

The Battle of Hastings. 
Harold was at York celebrating his victory over the Norwegians. A mes- 
senger came in haste to tell him that William had landed on the southern 
coast. He had planted his banner on English ground. Harold marched to- 
ward the south with his victorious army. He published on his way an or- 
der that all the nobles should arm their forces. They were to repair with 
them to London. The men of the west came without delay. The men of 
the north were more tardy on account of the distance. There was, neverthe- 
less, reason to believe that the English king would in a few days be surround- 
ed by a hundred thousand men. He could not restrain his eagerness to come 
up with the invaders. He wished to chastise them. They were committing 
the most cruel ravages upon the defenseless natives. He did not wait for 
these re-enforcements. This precipitancy of Harold was his ruin. He staked 
all on a decisive engagement. He should have worn out the invading army 
by delay, and a harassing system of warfare. He came up with the Normans 
at Hastings. His force was inferior. The battle was long and desperate. 
William was a skillful general. All his energies were thoroughly taxed. He 
was on the very brink of ruin. His foresight and craft proved too much for 
the headlong courage of the Anglo-Saxons. Their king fell pierced by an 
arrow. The Normans finally remained masters of the bloody field. 

Exercise V. 

Anecdote of Frederick the Great. 
One day Frederick, king of Prussia, rang the bell. Nobody came. He 
opened the door. He found his page asleep in an arm-chair. He advanced 
toward him. He was going to awake him. A letter was in the page's pock- 
et. The king perceived it. He was curious to know what it contained. He 
took it. He read it. It was a letter from the mother of the young man. 
She thanked him for sending a portion of his wages to comfort her in her dis- 
tress. The king read the letter. He took a purse of ducats. He slipped it 
with the letter into the page's pocket. He returned safely to his chamber. 
A short time afterward he rang very loud. The page awakens. He comes 
to the king. "You have slept well," says the king. The page endeavors to 
excuse himself. In his confusion he puts his hand into his pocket. He feels 
the purse. He draws it out. He is overwhelmed with grief and astonish- 
ment. He turns pale. He looks at the king. He sheds a torrent of tears, 
without being able to speak a word. "What is the matter?" inquires the 
king. "Sire," said the young man, throwing himself on his knees, "some 
one seeks my ruin. I know not what money this is." "My friend," says the 
king, "God often sends us good in sleep. Send your mother the money. 
Assure her that I will take care of you both." 

Exercise VI. 
In the next four Exercises are given merely the heads of a 
composition. Write these hints out as in the following 
model : 



OUTLINE OF EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION-WHITING. 187 

The Cow. 

Heads. — The most useful of horned animals ; its flesh ; articles made of 
its skin ; uses of its horns ; the hair ; the bones ; importance of milk ; the 
calf; use .of its skin. 

Expanded. — Of all horned animals the cow is the most useful. Its flesh 
is one of the most necessary articles of food to man ; and the purposes to 
which the various parts of its body are applied are almost innumerable. With- 
out its skin we could scarcely obtain covering for our feet, the boots and 
shoes that we wear being almost wholly made from the skin, which is, besides, 
manufactured into an endless variety of necessary commodities. Mixed with 
lime, its hair serves to make mortar ; its horns are converted into combs, knife- 
handles, boxes, drinking vessels, spoons, and other useful articles; and its 
bones are equally serviceable for domestic and ornamental purposes. The 
milk of the cow is one of the most valuable of animal products, being in ev- 
ery-day use as a wholesome and nourishing article of diet ; and it is from 
milk that butter and cheese are made. The young of the cow is called a 
calf; its skin is made into fine boots and shoes, parchment, and the binding 
of books. 

Exercise VII. 

The Dog. 

His qualities ; sagacity, vigilance ; fitted to be the companion and guardian 
of man ; the only animal that always recognizes his master and the habitual 
visitors of his family ; his services in assisting man to subdue and keep other 
animals in subjection : the great variety of the dog species. The Newfound- 
land dog — his size ; his web-feet ; his usefulness in saving people who are in 
danger of drowning. The dogs of St. Bernard — their sagacity ; their em- 
ployment in rescuing travelers who have been lost in the snows of the Alps. 
The shepherd's dog — his docility ; his watchfulness ; his intelligence in obey- 
ing the voice and gestures of his master. Hunting-dogs — their keen sense 
of smell ; the setter and pointer stand still when they discover the game ; 
their natural instinct to seize it overcome by training. The Esquimaux dog 
— his use in the sledge ; his power of endurance ; his assistance to European 
explorers of the Arctic regions. The domestic watch-dog — his value as a 
protector from the midnight robber ; sense of security arising from depend- 
ence on his courage and watchfulness. 

Exercise VIII. 

The Whale. 

The largest of all animals ; belongs to the class mammalia ; how the whale 
differs from the true fish ; displays great affection for its young ; protects 
and defends them when attacked ; the different kinds of whale ; the whale of 
the north Polar regions ; its value ; whalers annually set out from all the mar- 
itime countries in Europe ; American whalers numerous and enterprising ; 
method of attacking the whale ; the boats ; the line ; its enormous length ; 
the harpoon ; the skill and boldness necessary for its use ; the hazard of the 
chase ; the enormous power of the animal ; the stroke of his tail ; a boat and 
its crew sometimes sent up in the air ; the whaler itself has been foundered 
by the charge of the infuriated animal ; uses of the whale ; blabber ; whale- 
bone ; whence the latter is obtained ; produce and value of a single fish ; three 



188 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

a profitable cargo ; the spermaceti whale ; the South Seas ; what is obtained 
from it ; what part of the animal ; its uses. 

Exercise IX. 

Description of Printing. 
First step in the process ; the setting up of the types ; what these are ; sev- 
eral pieces of metal forming the letters of the alphabet ; arranged in wooden 
cases containing a box for every letter ; the words are thus set up, letter by 
letter, in an instrument called a composing-stick ; these are made so as to suit 
a longer or shorter line ; the lines are then made into pages ; the pages are 
fixed into an iron frame or chase ; it is then put on to the printing-press ; the 
surface of the pages are now covered with ink by a roller ; a sheet of paper 
is placed over them ; they are pressed under a flat cylindrical surface ; the 
pressure of this cylinder or plate stamps the characters on the paper ; the im- 
pressions can thus be repeated at pleasure ; extraordinary speed of the steam 
printing machine ; number of copies produced in an hour. 

5. Abstracts from Memory. 

Another excellent exercise in composition -writing is to 
write from memory an abstract of a selection read to the class 
by the teacher. 

For illustration, two exercises are selected from the compo- 
sitions of a first-grade class in one of our larger cities. 

The following extract was read to the class, and the schol- 
ars were lequired to write what they remembered. 

A Century of Progress. 

1. The century has witnessed remarkable intellectual progress. The sure 
foundation of this is the American common-school system, which is estab- 
lished in nearly all the states, and which, with the Prussian system, is the 
"best and broadest educational organization in the world. There are now over 
seven million children attending the public schools of the United States. Our 
country has over four hundred colleges and universities. 

2. During colonial times, Americans were almost entirely dependent on the 
mother country for intellectual food. This state of things continued for many 
years after the founding of the government. It used, accordingly, to be sneer- 
ingly asked, ' ' Who reads an American book ?" This question would not now 
be asked ; or, if it were, it would be answered highly to the credit of the 
United States. During the past fifty years, American authors of great merit, 
in all branches of literature and science, have arisen, and their works are read 
and appreciated throughout the civilized world. Among historians may be 
named Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley. Among poets may be named Bryant, 
Whittier, Simms, Holmes, Poe, and Longfellow. Among romance and mis- 
cellaneous writers may be named Cooper, Hawthorne, Irving, Channing, and 
Legare \le-gree\ Among orators may be named Webster, Clay, Calhoun, 
Benton, Everett, Phillips, Seward, Prentice, Stephens, Douglas, Choate. In 
the fine arts, also, the American school of painters and sculptors stands 
very high. 

3. The great civil war, though terrible in its effects, has not been without 



OUTLINE OF EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION- WRITING. 189 

some good results. The extinction of slavery is already proving a benefit to 
the people of the South, while it has taken away the long-standing subject of 
political dispute between the two great sections of the Union. 

4. Another benefit of the war is, that it has brought the two sections, North 
and South, to understand each other better and respect each other more than 
they ever did before. The war has also made Americans less puffed up and 
sensational than formerly, and has given a more earnest and manly cast to 
the American character. 

5. The study of United States history should infuse into our minds the 
American spirit, which is as broad as the continent. It should inspire us 
with fraternal feelings towards all sections, with love for the Union, reverence 
for the Constitution, and faith in our country's destiny. — Swintons Condensed 
History of the United States. 

Illustration. — Done fairly. 

A Century of Progress. 

The century has witnessed wonderful intellectual progress. This is shown 
by the firm basis on which our American schools are founded, which school 
system, together with the Prussian, is the broadest and best in the world. 

Our country has, at present, seven millions of children attending schools, 
and over four hundred colleges and universities. 

During colonial times our fathers received their intellectual food from the 
mother country ; accordingly, it used sneeringly to be asked, ' Who reads an 
American book?' It would not be so now, for American authors and poets 
rank as high as any in the world at the present time. 

Among historians may be named Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley. Among 
poets may be classed Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, Simms, Holmes, and Poe. 

Among romance and miscellaneous writers are Hawthorne, Irving, Chan- 
ning, and Cooper. The leading orators are Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Seward, 
Prentice, Phillips, Everett, Douglass, Choate, etc. 

In the fine arts, American sculptors and painters are winning for themselves 
high laurels and fame. 

The great Civil War, though terrible in its destruction, has proved bene- 
ficial to the country. It gave the African his liberty, and caused the North 
and South to know each other better than before. It also removed in a great 
respect the puffed up and sensational feeling of the Americans. 

In reading the history of the United States it should infuse into our minds 
the American spirit, which is as broad as the continent. It should cause us 
to feel fraternally to all sections of the world, to love the Union, have rever- 
ence for the Constitution, and to have faith in our country's destiny. 

Illustration. — Done badly. 

This exercise is printed just as it was written. Correct it. 

A Century of progress. 
This century has noticed great intellectual advantages owing principally to 
the common school system which with Prussia has the greatest intellectual 
advantages on the globe. The united states has about 400 colleges and uni- 
versities and has about 7,000,000 of children attending them. In the Collo- 



190 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 



nial times the colonies had to depend principally on the mother country for 
intellectual resources, and it used to be asked with scorn who reads an Amer- 
ican book should that question be asked now it would be answered with a 
great deal of credit to the United States. Within the last 60 years many 
great men have been born in the united states, among historians can be placed 
Prescott, Branchet, Mocker among the writers of adventures can be placed 
Webster, Stevens, and many others among poets. Longfellow, Cooper, Cal- 
houn Hathor. The civil war though terrible in destruction of life, done a 
great deal of good for the united states it made a better feeling among the 
north and south and put an end to slavery and the great political question It 
also took the puff out of the united states and created a good feeling among 
the people. Let us therefore always have a good deal of Love, Faith and Rev- 
erence in our countries welfare. 

Exercise X. 

Write in your own Language what you can recollect of the following Tales 

and Fables. 



Jack and the Bean Stalk. 

Little Red Riding Hood. 

The Babes in the Wood. 

Ali Baba. 

Beauty and the Beast. 

Cinderella. 

John Gilpin. 

Blue Beard. 

Adventures of Sinbad the Sailor. 

Whittington and his Cat. 

Fortunes ; or the Wishing Cap. 

Valentine and Orson. 

The Bear and the Bees. 

The Fox and the Crow. 

The Wolf and the Lamb. 



The Ass in the Lion's Skin. 
The Fox and the Grapes. 
The Frog and the Ox. 
The Frogs who wished a King. 
The Fox and the Stork. 
The Wolf and the Crane. 
The Boy who cried ' ' Wolf. " ' 
The Oak and the Willow. 
The Dog and his Shadow. 
The Hare and the Tortoise. 
The Stag who admired his Horns. 
The Mouse and the Lion. 
The Ant and the Caterpillar. 
The Ant and the Grasshopper. 
Crusoe's Defense of his Fort. 



6. Letter-Writing. 
Every one that can write at all ought to learn how to write, 
fold, and direct a letter. Exercises in letter-writing may be 
ranked among the pleasantest and most practical forms of 
composition writing. The language of letters should be plain 
and simple. The construction of the sentences should be 
easy and natural. Stiffness, formality, and the affectation of 
preciseness are, in this kind of composition, particularly ob- 
jectionable. In fact, w T e should write to our friends in their 
absence very much as we should speak to them if they were 
present. The mechanical arrangement of a letter is impor- 
tant, and the following details should be attended to : 

I. The Date and the Place where it is written. 

The day, month, and year should be given in full. Never date a letter 
merely by the day of the week ; as/ Sunday evening.' 



LETTER-WRITING. 191 

II. The form of address; as, ' Sir,' ' Dear Sir,' ' My dear 

Charles,' ' My dearest Father,' according to the terms 
of intimacy between the writer and the person ad- 
dressed. 

III. The Narrative, or letter proper. 

IV. The Subscription ; as, 'Yours truly,' 'Yours faithfully,' 

' Your affectionate brother,' etc. (varying, as in No. 
II., with the relations of the parties), and the Name 
of the writer. 

V. The Name of the Recipient. 

The Teacher must explain to the class all the details of the work. A 
few illustrations are selected from school exercises, and are printed just as 
they were written. 

I. 

[The requirement in this case was, 'Address a short letter 
to John Doe, Superintendent of Public Schools, stating 
what studies you like best, and in what you think your- 
self deficient.'] 

(I-) 
John Doe : San Francisco, April, 19, 1872. 

Sir, 

As you requested us to tell you about our studies, I will give 
an account of mine. The studies which are liked, the ones disliked, the one 
disliked very much, for there is one of that class. 

Grammar is my favorite. In the beginning of the year I disliked it, but 
now it occupies the first place among all the studies. I like History and 
Geography very much because they are matters of memory, and I was crea- 
ted with a fair memory. 

Arithmetic I am very sorry to say is the study I dislike so very much. Mr. 
Doe, I am not a creature of reason, and as this is the main element necessary 
in Arithmetic, I am deficient. I am gaining on it every week, I hope soon to 
be fine in Arithmetic. 

Composition and Penmanship are my favorites also. Please look on this 
paper with lenient eye. Do not be too criticlal. I do not think this, letter 
or composition is very bad — Agree with me. 

Yours Truly, Hattie Cooper. 

(2.) 
Hon. John Doe, San Francisco, April, 18, 1872. 

Superintendant Common Schools 
Sir 

I take the pleasure to inform you, of studdies I like 
and dislike ; my special favorite is Arithmetic, next comes Grammar, al- 
though more difficult yet it is very interesting : Phisical Geography, History 
and Analysis, together form the van of my studies. I do not pretend to say 
that I dislike spelling and Natural Geography, because they are generally use- 
ful, but they do not rank among my favorites. 

Very Eespectfully, P. D. 



192 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

II. 

Illustrations from the exercises of a second-grade class. 
There are many faults of spelling, capitalizing, and punctua- 
ting in these exercises. See if you can correct them. 

[The requirement was, 'Address a short letter of thanks to 
your father, mother, or guardian for an imaginary birth- 
day present.'] 

(1.) 

San Francisco, April, 19th, 1872. 
Dear Father, 

I thank you very much for that dress you made me a 
present of on my last birth-day. It is such a pretty plaid, I guess I will 
have mamma to make me an overskirt and a basque. It will be so be- 
becoming. And I must not forget that beautiful velvet hat which mamma 
also gave me. Hoping you will thank her for it I still remain. 

Your loving daughter, Alice. 

(2.) 

San Francisco, April 19th, 1872. 
Dear Parents. 

How can I begin to thank you, for that beautiful present ? 
How is it you always know what I want ? That book case is just beautiful. 
Dear parents, that is all I can say about it, and I will try to show you by my 
good behavior, how much I thank you for it, Dear parents I will not attempt 
to tell you how much I love you, for, all you have done for me, but let my ac- 
tions speak for me. 

Good Bye Your daughter 

Annette. 

(3.) 

Boston, April 19th, 1872. 
Dear Mother : 

I cannot express the thanks I owe you for the beautiful 
presents you sent me. The pair of gold bracelets are handsome, and I thank 
you a thousand times for them, and for the dress, set, ring, and especially 
your picture. I showed it to Mrs. B , and she said " it was the best pic- 
ture she has ever seen of you. " 

Your ever loving daughter, Augusta. 

Rose Seminary. 

Apr. 19th ; 1872. 
Dear Father , 

How can I express my thanks to you in words for my beau- 
tiful, and long wished for little watch, I can't but when I see you I will give 
you a big kiss for it. All of the girls pronounce it the very sweetest one in 
the school and you know most every girl has one. 

The lunch bell is ringing so you will excuse my brevity and 
believe me 

Your loving daughter. Lizzie. 



TUENING POETRY INTO PROSE. 193 

7. Turning Poetry into Prose. 
The style of poetry is inore impassioned, and more figura- 
tive and flowing, than that of prose. Hence, in converting 
poetry into prose, it is often necessary to substitute simpler 
words and expressions, as well as to break up the rhyme and 
metre. The following are some of the chief peculiarities of 
poetical construction : 

I. The auxiliary verb to do is dispensed with in interrogation — 
Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle ? — Byron. 
Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war ? — Scott. 

IT. The verb precedes the nominative — 

While stands the Coliseum, Home shall stand. — Byron. 

Answered Fitz- James : ' And if I thought. ' — Scott. 

O'er the path so well known still proceeded the maid. — Southey. 

III. The objective case precedes the transitive verb — 

Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage. — Goldsmith. 
The Stuart sceptre well she swayed,but the sword she could not wield, 
—H.G.Bell. 

IV. The noun precedes the adjective — 

Hadst thou sent warning, fair and true. — Scott. 
Now is the pleasant time, the cool, the silent. — Milton. 

V. The adjective precedes the verb to be — 

Few and short were the prayers we said. — Wolfe. 
Rich were, the sable robes she wore. — H. G. Bell. 

VI. The pronoun is expressed in the imperative — 
Wipe thou thine eyes. — Shakspeare. 

But, blench not thou. — Byron. 

VII. Adjectives are used for adverbs — 

False flew the shaft, though pointed well. — Moore. 
Abrupt and loud, a summons shook the gate. — Campbell. 

VIII. Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents — 
The wind, it waved the willow boughs. — Southey. 

For the deck it was their field of fame. — Campbell. 

IX. The antecedent is omitted — 

Who steals my purse, steals trash. — Shakspeare. 
Happy, who walks with him. — Cowper. 

X. And — and is used for both — and. Or — or for either — or. Nor — nor 
for neither — nor — 

And trump and timbrel answered keen. — Scott. 
' I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move. — Walsh. 

XI. Adverbial phrases are not placed in juxtaposition with the words to 
which they grammatically belong — 

On thy voiceless shore 
The heroic lay is tuneless now. — Byron. 
Of the three hundred grant but three. — Byron. 

I 



194 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

XII. Prepositions are suppressed — 

Despair and anguish fled [ ] the struggling soul. — Goldsmith. 

And like the bird whose pinions quake 

But can not fl y [ ] the gazing snake. — Byron. 

Iii poetry, things are painted vividly; words are sometimes 
used that would elsewhere not be allowable ; phrases and 
clauses are inverted ; and the sentences are elliptical. 

All these things must be considered in transposing verse 
into prose. 

ILLUSTRATION. 
4 In woods and glens I love to roam 
When the tired hedger hies him home, 
Or by the woodland pool to rest 
When pale the star sleeps on its breast.' 

Henry Kirke White. 

This may be turned into prose so as to read as follows : 
I love to roam among the woods and glens when the hedger, tired with 

his day's work, is going home, or to sit by the woodland pool when the star 

is reflected from its waters. 

SECOND ILLUSTRATION. 

' Sweet Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain, 
Where health and plenty cheer'd the laboring swain, 
How often have I paused on every charm, 
The shelter'd cot, the cultivated farm, 
The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 
The decent church, that topp'd the neighboring hill ; 
The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
For talking age and whispering lovers made.' — Goldsmith. 

This may be turned into prose thus : 

Auburn, the loveliest village of the plain, whose laborers were paid for their 
work with health and plenty. How often have I paused to see thy various 
charms — the cottages sheltered from the sun and wind by trees, the farm 
rich in cultivation, the brook always running, and the mill always going, the 
pretty church on the top of the neighboring hill, and the hawthorn, with 
seats round it, on which the old could gossip, and lovers could whisper. 

Exercise XL 

A. 

Convert the following Stanzas into Prose : 

THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH.— Longfellow. 

1. Under a spreading chestnut-tree 

The village smithy stands ; 
The smith, a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands ; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands. 



TURNING POETEY INTO PROSE. 195 

2. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, 

His face is like the tan ; 
His brow is wet with honest sweat ; 

He earns whate'er he can, 
And-looks the whole world in the face, 

For he owes not any man. 

3. Week in, week out, from morn till night, 

You can hear his bellows blow ; 
You can hear him swing his heavy sledge 

With measured beat and slow, 
Like a sexton ringing the village bell 

When the evening sun is low. 

4. And children coming home from school 

Look in at the open door ; 
They love to see the flaming forge, 

And hear the bellows roar, 
And catch the burning sparks that fly 

Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 

5. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, 

For the lesson thou hast taught ! 
Thus at the flaming forge *)f life 

Our fortunes must be wrought ; 
Thus on its sounding anvil shaped 

Each burning deed and thought ! 

ILLUSTRATION. 

The following is an exercise just as it was written by a 
scholar (aged 15) in one of the first-grade classes of a gram- 
mar-school in San Francisco. You will see that it is quite 
well done. Can you make any criticism on it ? 

Tlie Village Blacksmith. 

The blacksmith shop stands in the village, under a spreading chestnut-tree. 
The smith is a mighty man. His hands are large and sinewy ; and the mus- 
cles of his arm are so strong, that they look like bands of iron. 

You can hear his bellows blow from morning until night, week in, and 
week out. He swings his heavy sledge so slowly and regularly, that it resem- 
bles the ringing of the village bell, which tolls when the sun sets. 

When the children are coming home from school, they stop to look in, for 
the door is always open. They like to see the flaming forge, and hear the 
bellows roar. They are delighted to catch the sparks, which fly about so 
thick and fast that they think of chaff on a threshing-floor. 

You have taught me a valuable lesson my worthy friend, for which I must 
earnestly thank you. As we go through life, our fortunes must be wrought 
by honest, steady labor, as at the flaming forge. Every deed and thought is 
recorded, and leaves an endless impression, as the anvil does in striking. 

SECOND ILLUSTRATION. 

Here is another exercise written by a pupil of the same 
grade and age. It is very badly done. Correct it. 



196 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

The Village blacksmith. 
1. Under a spreading chestnut- tree the smith, a mighty man is he and the 
muscles of his brawny arms are strong as iron bands with large and sinewy 
hands the village smithy stands. 

3 Week in week out from morn till night you can hear him swing his heavy 
sledge like a sexton ringing the village bell when the evening sun is low you 
can hear his bellows blow with measured beat and slow. 

4 And children coming home from school look in at the open door and 
catch the burning sparks that fly like chaff from a threshing floor, they love 
to see the flaming forge and hear the bellows roar. 

8 Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend thus at the flaming forge of 
life thus on its sounding anvil shaped each burning deed and thought for the 
lessons thou hast taught our fortunes must be wrought. 

Exercise XII. 

The Grandfather. 

1. The farmer sat in his easy-chair, 

Smoking his pipe of clay, 
While his hale old wife, with busy care, 

Was clearing the pinner away ; 
A sweet little girl, with fine blue eyes, 
On her grandfather's knee, was catching flies. 

2. The old man laid his hand on her head, 

With a tear on his wrinkled face ; 
He thought how often her mother dead 

Had sat in the self-same place ; 
As the tear stole down from his half-shut eye, 
' Don't smoke !' said the child ; ' how it makes you cry !' 

3. Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, 

While close to his heaving breast 
The moistened brow and the cheek so fair 

Of his sweet grandchild were pressed ; 
His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay ; 
Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. 

Sample of the exercise done pretty well : 

The Grand-father. 
1. 
The farmer was smoking his clay pipe, as he sat in his easy-chair, and his 
hale old wife was clearing away the dinner with busy care ; while on her 
grand-father's knee, was a sweet little girl catching flies. 

2. 

And as he thought how her dead mother, used to sit in that same place he 
placed his hand on her head with a tear on his wrinkled face ; and as the 
child, saw the tear from his eye steal down, she said ' don't smoke,' 'how it 
makes you cry. ' 

3. 

Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, and they were both fast asleep, with 



TURNING POETRY INTO PROSE. 197 

his head bent down on her soft hair, while the moistened brow, and the fair 
cheek of his grandchild was pressed against his heaving breast. 

Sample as done pretty badly : ^ 

The Grandfather. 

A Farmer sat smoking his pipe of clay in his easy-chair, while with busy 
care his hale old wife the dinner was clearing away, while on her Grandfather's 
knee a little girl with fine blue eyes, was catching flies. 

On her head the old man laid his hand while on his wrinkled face a tear, 
how often her mother he thought had in the self-same spot had sat, and from 
his half shut eye a tear stole down ' don't smoke for it makes you cry' said 
the child. 

Still in his easy-chair the farmer sat while the moistened brow and the 
cheek of his grandchild so fair was pressed close to his heaving breast on her 
soft hair lay his head bent- down - for on that summer day they were both fast 
asleep.' 

Exercise XIII. 
Turn the following Stanzas into Prose : 

1. Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind ; 
His soul proud science never taught to stray 
Far as the solar walk or Milky Way ; 

Yet simple Nature to his hope has given, 

Beyond the cloud-topp'd hills, a humble heaven ; 

Some safer world in depth of woods embraced, 

Some happier island in the watery waste, 

Where slaves once more their native land behold, 

No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold ! 

To Be, contents his natural desire ; 

He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire ; 

But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, 

His faithful dog shall bear him company. — Pope. 

2. The busy lark, the messenger of day, 
Saluteth in her song the morning gray, 
And fiery Phoebus riseth up so bright, 
That all the Orient laugheth at the sight, 

And with his streams he drieth in the greves (graves) 
The silver drops that hang upon the leaves. — Chaucer. 

3. Sometimes, with secure delight, 
The upland hamlets will invite, 
When the merry bells ring round, 
And the jocund rebecs sound, 

To many a youth and many a maid, 

Dancing in the checkered shade, 

When young and old come forth to play, 

On a sunshine holiday, 

Till the livelong daylight fail. — Shakspeare. 

4. The armaments, which thunderstrike the walls 

Of rock-built cities, bidding nations quake, 



198 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 

And monarch s tremble in their capitals — 

The oak leviathans, whose huge ribs make 

Their clay creator the vain title take 
Of lord of thee, and arbiter of war — 

These are thy toys ; and, as the snowy flake, 
They melt into thy yeast of waves, which mar 
Alike the Armada's pride, or spoils of Trafalgar. — Byron. 

5. One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 

When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood near ; 

So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung — 

So light to the saddle before her he sprung ! 

' She is won ! we are gone, over bank, bush, and scaur ; 

They'll have fleet steeds that follow, ' quoth young Lochinvar. — Scott. 

6. At church, with meek and unaffected grace, 
His looks adorned the venerable place ; 

Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, 

And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 

The service passed, around the pious man 

With ready zeal each honest rustic ran ; 

Even children followed, with endearing wile, 

And plucked his gown to share the good man's smile ; 

His ready smile a parent's warmth expressed, 

Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed. 

To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 

But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven ; 

As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, 

Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm, 

Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, 

Eternal sunshine settles on its head. — Goldsmith. 

Note. — For additional exercises, Teachers are referred to any of the 
School Readers. 



APPENDIX, 



Conjugation of a Regular Terb. 
(ancient style.) 

Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 



Active. 



Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 



I love. 
Thou lovest. 
He loveth. 



We ) 
Ye 

They) 



love. 



I am loved. 
Thou art loved. 
He is loved. 



Passive. 
We ) 

Ye > are loved. 
They) 



Past Tense. 

I loved. We ^l I was loved. 

Thou lovedst. Ye j* loved. Thou wast loved. 

He loved. They) He was loved. 



We ) 

Ye > were loved. 

They) 



I shall or will love. 
Thou shalt or wilt 

love. 
He shall or will love. 



Future Tense. 

Thou shalt or } 

wilt f be 

I shall or will j loved, r™ 
He shall or will J 



We 1 


shall 


Ye ' 


f or will 


They 


love. 



We 
Ye 



shall 
or will 
. be 
iey I loved. 



I have ^ 
Thou hast >- 
He has ) 



loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



We 
Ye 

They 



have 
loved. 



I have 
Thou hast 
He hath 



been 
loved. 



) have 

I ■ 



We 

Ye \- been 

They) loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 






I had ) We 

Thou hadst ;- loved. Ye 
He had ) They) 



had 
loved. 



I had ) , 

Thou hadst y, A 
He had ) loved ' 



") had 

> been 



We 
Ye 

They) loved. 



I shall or 1 

will / 

Thou shalt I have 

or wilt | loved. 
He shall or \ 

wm J 



Future Perfect Tense. 



) shall 



We 

Ye y have 
They) loved. 



I shall c 

wilt 
Thou shalt I 

or wilt 
He shall or \ 

will 



have 
been 
loved. 



shall 
We ( or will 
Ye > have 
They ( been 

loved. 



200 



APPENDIX. 



Active. 

SINGULAR.- 

I may, can, or must ) 

Thou mayest, canst, or must > love 
He may, can, or must ) 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Passive. 

SINGTJLAE. 

I may, can, or must ) 

Thou mayest, canst, or must > be loved. 

He may, can, or must ) 



PLURAL. 

We } 

Ye > may, can, or must love. 
They) 



PLURAL. 

We ) 

Ye >■ may, can, or must be loved. 
They) 



Past Tense. 



SINGTJLAE. 

I might, could, would, or 

should 
Thou mightest, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 
He might, could, would, or 

should 



> love. 



SINGTJLAE. 

I might, could, would, or 

should 
Thou mightest, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 
He might, could, would, 

or should 



>be loved. 



PLTJEAL. 

v ( might, could, would, or should 
They) 



love. 



PLTJEAL. 

Y e I might, could, would, or should 
They)" beloved ' 



SINGTJLAE. 

I may, can, or must ) haye 

Thou mayest, canst, or must >• 1 ^ 
He may, can, or must 



Present Perfect Tense. 

) 



SINGDLAE. 

I may, can, or must ^ have 

Thou mayest, canst, or must >• been 
He may, can, or must ) loved. 



PLTJEAL. 

We } 

Ye > may, can, or must have loved. 

They) 



We ) may, 
Ye >• can, 
They) must 



Past Perfect Tense 

SINGTJLAE. 

I might, could, would, or 

should 
Thou mightest, couldst, ^ have 

wouldst, or shouldst gloved. 

He might, could, would, or \ 

shnnlrl 



SINGTJLAE. 

I might, could, would, or 

should 
Thou mightest, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst 
He might, could, would, or 

should 



PLTJEAL. 

• have been loved. 



have 
>been 
loved. 



PLURAL, 

might, 1 
could, 
, I would, 
^ J should 



We 
Ye 



have loved. 



We 
Ye 



MS 



) might, 
[ could, 
would, 
should 



> have been loved. 



APPENDIX. 



201 



Active, 
If I or we 

If thou or ye ^ love. 
If he or they 



If I or we 
If thou or ye 
If we or they 



loved. 



Active. 
Love (thou or ye). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, 

Passive. 
If I or we I 
If thou or ye >• be loved. 
If we or they ) 

Past Tense. 

If I or we ^ 

If thou or ye > were loved. 

If we or they ) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Passive. 
Be (thou or ye) loved. 



INFINITIVES. 

Present. To love. To be loved. 

Perfect. To have loved. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Being loved. Past. Loved. Been loved. 

Perfect. Having loved. Having been loved. 

Synopsis of the Verb Loye. 
(ancient style.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





ACTIVE VOICE. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


Tense. 


Simple Form. 


Progressive Form. 




Present. 
Past, 
Future. 
Pres. Perf. 

Past Perf. 

Put. Perf. 


Thou lovest. 
Thou lovedst. 
Thou wilt love. 
Thou hast loved. 

Thou hadst loved. 

Thou wilt have loved. 


Thou art loving. 

Thou wast loving. 

Thou wilt be loving. 

Thou hast been lov- 
ing. 

Thou hadst been lov- 
ing. 

Thou wilt have been 
loving. 


Thou art loved. 
Thou wast loved. 
Thou wilt be loved. 
Thou hast been 

loved. 
Thou hadst been 

loved. 
Thou wilt have been 

loved. 


POTENTIAL MOOD. 


Present. 
Past. 

Pres. Perf 

Past Perf 


Thou 
mayest or canst love, 
mightest or couldst 

love, 
mayest or canst have 

.loved, 
mightest or couldst 

have loved. 


Thou 
mayest be loving, 
mightest be loving. 

mayest have been 

loving, 
mightest have been 

loving. 


Thou 
mayest be loved, 
mightest be loved. 

mayest have been 

loved, 
mightest have been 

loved. 



12 



202 



APPENDIX. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
Past. 



If thou love. 
If thou loved. 



If thou be loving. 
If thou were loving. 



If thou be loved. 
If thou were loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Present. | Love (thou). 



| Be (thou) loving. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present, 
Perfect. 



To love. 

To have loved. 



To be loving. 

To have been loving. 



To be loved. 

To have been loved. 



Synopsis of a Verb conjugated 

1. Negatively; 2. Interrogatively ; 3. Negative-Interrogatively. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present, 
Present pr ogres. 
Past emphatic. 
Past progres. 
Perfect, 
Perfect progres. 

Past perfect. 
Past perf prog. 

Future. 
Future progres. 

Future perfect. 

Fut. perf. prog. 



1. 



I do not move. 
I am not moving. 
I did not move. 
I was not moving. 
I have not moved. 
I have not been 

moving. 
I had not moved. 
I had not been 

moving. 
I shall not move. 
I shall not be 

moving. 
I shall not have 

moved. 
I shall not have 

been moving. 



Do I move ? 

Am I moving ? 

Did I move ? 

Was I moving ? 

Have I moved ? 

Have I been mov- 
ing? 

Had I moved ? 

Had I been mov- 
ing? 

Shall I move ? 

Shall I be mov- 
ing? 

Shall I have 
moved ? 

Shall I have been 
moving ? 



3. 

Do I not move ?* 

Am I not moving ? 

Did I not move ? 

Was I not moving ? 

Have I not moved ? 

Have I not been 
moving ? 

Had I not moved ? 

Had I not been mov- 
ing? 

Shall I not move? 

Shall I not be mov- 
ing? 

Shall I not have 
moved ? 

Shall I not have 
been moving? 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



1. 


2. 




3. 


Present, I may, } 


May, ) 


May, ] 


) 


can, >- not move. 


Can, > I move ? 


Can, 


>■ I not move? 


must ) 


Must ) 


Must 


) 


Past, I might, j 


Might, ) 


Might, 


) 


3, «- 


Could, ( T ^ Mrn ? 
Would, f Imove? 


Could, 
Would, 


>■ I not move? 


should J 


Should j 


Should 


1 



* There is another mode of placing the negative; thus: 'Do not I move?' con- 
tracted into 'Don't I move?' This runs through all the tenses. A distinction ex- 
ists: If the negative is before 'I,' the phrase is conversational or familiar; as 'Do 
not I move ?' or ' Don't I move ?' If the negative is after ' I,' the phrase is energetic 
or emphatic : * Do I not move ?' 



APPENDIX. 



203 



Pres.Perf. I may, | h 
can, > < j 
must j moved - 

Pas* -Per/*. I might, ] 

could, (^ not have 
would, / moved, 
should ! 



Can 



| I have 
j moved? 



Might, 
Could, 



I I have 
Would, j moved ? 



Should 



May, 

Can, 



> I not have 
) moved. 



Might, "| 

Could, ! I not have 
Would, [ moved? 
Should J 



Anglo-Saxon Paradigms. 

[The Inflections and Words retained in Modem English are printed in Italics.'] 
1. THE NOUN 



Nom. 
Gen. 
D.Ab, 

Ace. 



Nom. 
Gen. 



SING. 

fisc, 
— e, 

5 

(i) -es=-'s. 

SING. 

ox-a, 
— an, 



D. Ab. — an, 
Ace. — an, 

(*) -an = -en. 



PLUR. 

fisc-as.( 2 ) 

a. 

um. 

as.Q) 



STNG. 

Nom. fot, 
Gen. — es, 
D. Ab. fet, 
Ace. — , 



(2) -as= -es, -s. 



( 3 ) fet: 



PLUR. 

fot-a. 
— um. 

fet-O 
=feet. 



PLUR. 

ox-arc. ( 4 ) 
— ena. 
— um. 
—an.C) 



SING. 

Nom. aeg, 

Gen. es, 

I). Ab. — e,' 

Ace. , 



PLUR. 

aeg-rw. ( 5 ) 

ra. 

rum. 

ru. ( 5 ) 

( 5 ) -ru = -ry in eyry, rookery, etc. 



Other plural-endings : -a, -e, -w, all of which are lost. 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Bat. 
Ace. 



2. THE PRONOUN. 
First Personal Pronoun. 

SING. DUAL,. PLUR. 

Nom. Ic = I, wit, we = we. 

Gen. min = mine, uncer, ure = our. 

Dat. me = me, unc, us = us. 

Ace. me = me, unc, us = us. 



Second Personal Pronoun. 



SING. . . DUAL. 

Nom. thu = tlfou, git 

Gen. thin = thine, incer 

Dat. the ~ thee, inc 

Ace. the = thee, inc 



PLUR. 

ge = ye- 
edwer = your. 
edw = you. 
edw = you. 



Demonstrative Pronoun (3d Person). 



MASC. 

he = he, 

his = his, 
him ) i . 

hine} = him ' 



Singular. 

FEM. 

heo . 

hire = her, 
hire( l ) = here, 

hig , 

('■) hire = here, adv., in this place. 



NEUT. 


hit 


= it. 


his 


(its). 


him 




hit 


= it. 



Plural. 
M. F. N. 
hi — 

hira 

him 

nig 



204 



APPENDIX. 



Definite Article, 
Singular, 

MASC. FEM. NEUT. 

Norn, se = the, sed = she, thaet = that. 

thaes , thaere ■ , thaes , 

-, thae , re( 2 ) — there, tham , 

-, tha , thaet ■ , 

-, thaere , thj( 3 ) = the. 



Gen, 

Dat, tham 

Ace, thone 

Abl, thy 



Plural, 
M. F. N. 

tha — they. 
thdra = their. 
tham ) 

tha > = them, 
tham J 



( 2 ) thaere:= there, adv., to that place. 

(3) thy z=the t adv., in " the more, the better." 



Demonstrative Adjective. 





Singular, 


Plural, 




MASO. FEM. NEUT. 


M. F. N. 


Nom. 


thes = this, theos , this = this. 


thas = these, those. 


Gen. 


thises ■ , thisse , thises . 


thissa ■ . 


Dat, 


thisum , thisse , thisum . 


thisum . 


Ace, 


thisne — — , thas , this = this. 


thas = these, those. 



Interrogative and Relative Pronoun, 
Singular, 



MASC, FEM. 

Nom. hwd — who, 



Gen, 

Dat, 
Ace, 
Abl, 



hwaes = whose, 
hwdm ) , 
hwone | = whom ' 
hwi , 



NEUT. 

hwaet = what. 

hwaes = whose. 

(hwdm = . 

(hwaet = what. 

hwi = why. 



Plural, 
M. and N. 
hwa. 
hwaes. 
hwam. 
hwone. 
hwy. 



Hwylc = which, is declined as an indefinite adjective. 



3. THE ADJECTIVE. 
(1.) Indefinite (Strong). 



Nom. 
Gen, 


MASO. 

god, 

es, 


Singular, 

FEM. 

god, 
re, 


NEUT. 

god. 
es. 


Plural. 

M. F. N. 
god-e (-u). 
ra. 


Dat. 


— urn, 


re, 


urn,, 


um. 


Ace. 


— ne, 


e, 


. 


— e (-u). 


Abl. 


e, 


re, 


— e. • 


um. 


Nom, 
Gen, 


MASO. 

(se) god-a, 
an, 


(2.) Definite (Weak). 
Singular. 

FEM. NEUT. 

(seo) god-e, (thaet) god-e. 
an, — an. 


Plural. 
M. F. N. 
(tha) god-an. 
ena. 


Dat, 


an, 


an, 


— an. 


um. 


Ace, 


an, 


an, 


— e. 


an. 


Abl, 


an, 


an, 


an. 


um. 



All these endings are lost. 



APPENDIX. 



205 



Pos. 
• smael= small, 
(se) smaela 

laet=late. 
(se) laeta. 



Comparison. 
Comp. 

M. F. 

smael-ra, -re — smaller, 
(se) smael ra. 

laet-m, -re = later, 
(se) laet-ra. 



Super. 
smael-os£ > „ . 

(se) smael-e S ta| = sma «est. 

laet-os£=latest. 
(se) laet-mesto=latemost. 



Saxon Verb. 
Wesan, To be. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SING. PLUB. 

1. eom = am } 

2. eart = art >• synd (-on) . 

3. ys — is ) 

Past Tense. 

1. waes = was } 

2. waere = [wast] ^ waeron = were. 

3. waes = was ) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SING. PLUB. 

* ) ( 

2. Y sy [seo, sig], < syn . 

8.) ( 

Pas£ Tense. 

h ) < - 

2. > waere — were <J waeron = were. 
3.) ( 



Beon, To 


BE. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 




SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Present Tense. 




Present Tense. 


SING. PLUB. 

J. beo, } 

2. byst, > bed [-th], . 

3. byth, ) 


1. 


SING. PLUB. 

> beo —- be > beon — be. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

o* [■ bed = he \ bed [-th] = be. 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 

*Indef. beon — be. 
Gerund, to beonne = [for] being. 



PARTICIPLE. 

Imperf. beonde — being. 



206 



APPENDIX. 



Comparative Table of Tenses in English, Latin, 
French, and German. 



active voice. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 





English. Latin. 


French. 


German. 


■§ rindef. 

§ j Progr. 

Clndef. 
■w j Progr. 


He writes. 


Scribit. 


11 ecrit. 


Er schreibt 


He is writing. 


Scribit. 


11 ecrit. 


Er schreibt. 


He has written. 


Scripsit. 


11 a ecrit. 


Er hat geschrie- 

ben. 
Er schrieb. 


He wrote. 


Scripsit. 


11 ecrivit. 


He was writing. 


Scribebat. 


11 ecrivait. 


Er schrieb. 


| \Perf. 


He had written. 


Scripserat. 


f 11 avait ecrit. \ 
(11 eut ecrit. } 


Er hatte geschrie- 
ben. 


rindef. 


He will write. 


Scribet. 


11 ecrira. 


Er wird schreiben. 


g \ Progr. 


He will he writ- 


Scribet. 


11 ecrira. 


Er wird schreiben. 


| \Perf. 


ing. 
He will have 


Scripserit. 


11 aura 6crit. 


Er wird geschrie- 


written. 






ben haben. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 




INDICATIVE 


MOOD. 




ho rindef. 


It is written. 


Scribitur. 


11 est ecrit. 


Es wird geschrie- 


1 \ 








ben. 


§ < Progr. 


It is being writ- 


Scribitur. 





Es wird geschrie- 


4 


ten. 






ben. 


KPerf. 


It has been writ- 
ten. 


(Scriptum est. ") 
(Scrip turn fuit.j 


11 a ete" ecrit. j 


Es ist geschrieben 
worden. 


^ (indef. 


It was written. 


| Scriptum est. \ 
(Scriptum fuit.j 


11 fut ecrit. i 


Es wurde geschrie- 
ben. 


§ < Progr. 


It was being 


Scribebatur. 





Es wurde geschrie- 


^ ) 


written. 






ben. 


{Per/. 


It had been 
written. 


(Scriptum erat.] 
^Scriptum fue-> 
( rat. J 


J 11 avait ete ecrit. 1 
j 11 eut ete ecrit. j 


Es war geschrie- 
ben worden. 


rindef. 


It will be writ- 


Scribe tur. 


11 sera ecrit. 


Es wird geschrie- 


2 


ten. 


1 




ben werden. 


§ < Progr. 


It will be being 


Scribetur. 


— 


Es wird geschrie- 


% 1 


written. 






ben werden. 


^. r v Per/. 


It will have been 
written. 


Scriptum erit. 


11 aura ete ecrit. 


Es wird geschrie- 
ben worden seyn. 



The Infinitive or Verbal in -ing. 

In Anglo-Saxon, and in most inflected languages, the Infinitive is formed 
by a suffix. Thus, A. S. gang (go) ; Infin. gang-an (Germ, geh-eri). In semi- 
Saxon and. Old English -an became -em, gang-en; in later English n was lost, 
gang-e, as in Old Fris. help-a (to help), and Old Norse far-a (to fare or go) ; 
and in modern English the suffix disappeared. 

To is not found in A. S. before the Nom. and Ace. of the Infinitive, and even 
in modern English it is not inserted after the following verbs : may, can, shall, 
will, dare, let, bid, make, must, see, hear, feel, do, need, and have. The cause 
of its later appearance may be thus explained. In A. S. the Infinitive was 
declined as follows : 



APPENDIX. 207 

N. and Ac. writ-an, to write. 
Dat. to writ-ann-e, for writing. 

This Dative is usually called the Gerund, and the term Infinitive is limited 
to the Nom. and Accus. When, in later times, the inflectional endings were 
lost, the origin of the separate forms write and to write was forgotten, and the 
preposition was inaccurately applied to all cases of the Infinitive. This con- 
fusion is first observed in semi- Anglian writers, when the occasional omission 
of the Dative suffix -e effaced the distinction of case. The Dat. to writ-ann-e, 
by the omission of the case-ending, appears as to writ-an, and the Nom. and 
Accus. writ-an, in consequence of this accidental resemblance, improperly re- 
ceived the preposition to. 

In Old English we sometimes find at instead of to before the Infinitive ; 
" That es at say, 11 i. e. "that is to say. 11 This is a Norse form, and is due to 
the Scandinavian conquerors of England. 

The Nom. and Ace. writ-an afterwards assumed the forms writ-en, writ-in, 
and finally writ-ing ;* and this form of the Infinitive is also known to mod- 
ern grammarians as the Gerund, Hence the identity of meaning in writing 
and to write. 

Declension of the Infinitive Indefinite. 

N. and Ac. (to) write, writing. 

Dat. to write. 

* The existence of a class of abstract nouns in -ing(A.S.ung) doubtless facilitated 
the change from -in to -ing. 



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Miss Sarah A. McCool, Teacher at Pottsville, Pa., says : 

I consider Prof. March's " Parser and Analyzer " a work of great 
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It is truly an excellent work, and my only regret is that I have 
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promised on Saturday that they would do so. We shall continue to 
recommend it, as I think it meets the wants of our teachers both for 
study and reference better that any other grammar I have seen. 



FRENCH'S 

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FIRST LESSONS IN NUMBERS, in their Natural 
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